Epimanes (“the Mad One”)

Antiochus IV Epiphanes (“God-Manifest”) was the eighth king of the Seleucid Empire, ruling from 175 to 164 BCE. The third and youngest son of Seleucid King Antiochus III Megas (“the Great”), Antiochus IV inherited the Seleucid throne after the death of his elder brother Seleucus IV Philopator (“Father-Loving”), though it was under ambitious circumstances. Antiochus tried to reignite Seleucid dominance in Asia and the Near East, though he was halted by the Romans. Antiochus is infamously known for his persecution of the Jews of Judaea and Samaria, which finally led to the Maccabean Revolt. Jewish tradition casts Antiochus IV as an evil character associated with the story of Hanukkah. Antiochus was the first Seleucid king to inscribe divine epithets on coins, conveying the ethos of his father Antiochus III who had made himself a living god. His eccentric behavior and erratic actions, along with his cruelty, led his contemporaries to call him Epimanes (“the Mad One”), a word play on his epithet Epiphanes.

Bust of Antiochus IV Epiphanes

Born circa 215 BCE, Antiochus was originally named Mithradates, but once he became king he assumed the royal name of Antiochus. His father, Antiochus III, was renowned throughout the east for his ambitious conquests and likeness to Alexander the Great. Though, Antiochus’ bid for the Greek world put the Roman Republic on guard, having recently defeated Carthage and “freed” the Greek city-states from Philip V of Macedon. Both the Romans and Antiochus III claimed to be defenders of the Greeks, however Antiochus’s ambitions were crippled by the fact that many of the Greek city-states preferred the overlordship of Romans. Antiochus’ continued aggressive policies provoked war from the Romans, in which the Romans subsequently humiliated Antiochus in battle, culminating in the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE) where Antiochus was finally defeated. In 188 BCE the Peace of Apamea was signed, which obliged Antiochus to abandon Europe and relinquish a vast amount of his Asian territories. Also, a hostage was required of the Romans to ensure Antiochus’ good behavior. They chose his youngest son Mithradates to be a hostage at Rome, however, in 187 BCE his elder brother Seleucus IV inherited the Seleucid throne and his son, Demetrius, was chosen to be the hostage at Rome by 178 BCE.

Seleucus IV Philopator’s reign was hamstrung by the heavy war-indemnity forced by the Romans, compelling him to seek an ambitious policy. Seleucus began to collect taxes in order to pay the Romans, sending his chief minister Heliodorus to Jerusalem to seize the treasury of the Temple. However, once back from Jerusalem the minister Heliodorus assassinated Seleucus and usurped the Seleucid throne. Seleucus’ son Demetrius was still a hostage at Rome, though Heliodorus was ousted and executed by Mithradates, who now seized the throne and proclaimed himself Antiochus IV. Declaring himself co-ruler with Seleucus’ infant son Antiochus, Antiochus IV soon had the child killed so he could rule alone. Antiochus then married his elder sister Laodice IV, who had previously been married to Seleucus.

Antiochus continued the process of Hellenization, but to a much more enforced and aggressive degree. He re-established Babylon as a Greek community, who revered him as Soter (“the Savior”), and appointed a Hellenized Judaean priest named Jason as high priest of the Temple of Jerusalem, effectively having a Greek oversee the Jewish community. He soon replaced Jason with a priest named Menelaus, on the promise of greater tribute. To win Antiochus’ favor, the rival priests completed the Hellenization of Jerusalem, inducting aspects of Greek culture and building an Olympic gymnasium.

Antiochus’ deprivation of military conquest and glory was offset by his policy of Hellenization, quickly becoming a known patron of Greek culture and society. Antiochus not only became a splendid benefactor of Greek temples across the Eastern Mediterranean, but also promoted the cult of the living Seleucid ruler, something implemented by his father Antiochus III. Antiochus gave himself the epithet Epiphanes – “God-Manifest”, legitimizing himself as a divine ruler, claiming to be Zeus in mortal guise. He would later give himself the epithet Nikephoros (“Bringer of Victory”), reflecting his success in war. True, it was Zeus Olympios (“the Olympian”) who Antiochus called forth with fevered imagination, building a new temple dedicated to Zeus in Athens and displaying the god on the reverse of his coins, something not done since the days of the Seleucus I Nicator (“the Victor”). Perhaps it is Zeus’ depiction as king of the Olympian gods that entertained Antiochus so much, and his claim to be the “mortal Zeus” is a result of such dreams of power and vanity. As the supreme god incarnate Antiochus became the patron to all religious facets and, most importantly, the Greek people of Asia.

Coin depicting Antiochus IV Epiphanes

In 170 BCE the guardians of the young pharaoh Ptolemy VI Philometor (“Mother-Loving”) demanded the territory of Coele-Syria be returned as a Ptolemaic possession, though Antiochus launched a pre-emptive attack on Egypt, conquering all Ptolemaic territory with the exception of Alexandria. Though he did not capture Ptolemy VI, Antiochus essentially used the boy as a puppet ruler as he had basically conquered the Ptolemaic Kingdom. When Antiochus withdrew from Egypt, the Alexandrians chose Ptolemy VI’s brother, also named Ptolemy (Ptolemy VIII), as their king. The brothers ruled together peacefully, all under the heel of Antiochus. In 168 BCE Antiochus led a second assault on Egypt, intending on besieging Alexandria and claim the throne of the pharaoh as his own. Before he reached Alexandria he was stopped by an elderly Roman ambassador named Gaius Popillius Laenas. The Roman ambassador ordered Antiochus to withdraw his army from Ptolemaic Egypt or else face war with the Roman Republic. Antiochus said he would discuss the decision with his council, whereupon Popillius drew a circle in the sand around Antiochus demanding an answer to the Roman Senate before Antiochus crossed the line. Knowing the might of Rome and his possible delicate options, Antiochus said he would withdraw his army. Only then did Popillius decide to shake hands with Antiochus.

Angered and humbled by the Romans, Antiochus went to Jerusalem to find Menelaus and his supporters slaughtered by Jason and associates. Antiochus then sacked the city, venting his rage and desiring to completely remodel Jerusalem as a Hellenized city. Antiochus rebuilt Jerusalem as a Seleucid fortress, outlawing Jewish religious rite and traditions and ordered the worship of Zeus as the patron god of Jerusalem. The Jews initially refused, though Antiochus sent an army to enforce his rule, resulting in the massacre of many Jews.  It is ironic, as the Jews of Judaea respected his father Antiochus III for the mild autonomy he granted to the Jews in terms of their laws and tribute. As detailed in the first book of the Maccabees:

“The wicked ruler Antiochus Epiphanes, son of King Antiochus the Third of Syria, was a descendant of one of Alexander’s generals. Antiochus Epiphanes had been a hostage in Rome before he became king of Syria in the year 137. At that time there appeared in the land of Israel a group of traitorous Jews who had no regard for the Law and who had a bad influence on many of our people. They said, Let’s come to terms with the Gentiles, for our refusal to associate with them has brought us nothing but trouble. This proposal appealed to many people, and some of them became so enthusiastic about it that they went to the king and received from him permission to follow Gentile customs. They built in Jerusalem a stadium like those in the Greek cities. They had surgery performed to hide their circumcision, abandoned the holy covenant, started associating with Gentiles, and did all sorts of other evil things […] after the conquest of Egypt, Antiochus marched with a great army against the land of Israel and the city of Jerusalem. In his arrogance, he entered the Temple and took away the gold altar, the lampstand with all its equipment, the table for the bread offered to the Lord, the cups and bowls, the gold fire pans, the curtain, and the crowns. He also stripped all the gold from the front of the Temple and carried off the silver and gold and everything else of value, including all the treasures that he could find stored there. Then he took it all to his own country. He had also murdered many people and boasted arrogantly about it. There was great mourning everywhere in the land of Israel

[…] Antiochus now issued a decree that all nations in his empire should abandon their own customs and become one people. All the Gentiles and even many of the Israelites submitted to this decree. They adopted the official pagan religion, offered sacrifices to idols, and no longer observed the Sabbath. The king also sent messengers with a decree to Jerusalem and all the towns of Judaea, ordering the people to follow customs that were foreign to the country. He ordered them not to offer burnt offerings, grain offerings, or wine offerings in the Temple, and commanded them to treat Sabbaths and festivals as ordinary work days. They were even ordered to defile the Temple and the holy things in it. They were commanded to build pagan altars, temples, and shrines, and to sacrifice pigs and other unclean animals there. They were forbidden to circumcise their sons and were required to make themselves ritually unclean in every way they could, so that they would forget the Law which the Lord had given through Moses and would disobey all its commands. The penalty for disobeying the king’s decree was death.”

There are horrific punishments detailed in Hebrew scripture to show Antiochus’ evil character, his absolute power and will dedicated to Hellenism. As such, the Maccabean Revolt, as expressed in First and Second Maccabees, was a cause for national identity. The rebellion was led by Judas Maccabeus, a Jewish priest whose father, Mattathias, sparked national resistance. Antiochus sent an army to deal with the revolt, though the Jews’ use of guerrilla warfare halted the reconquest effort, and in the end the Jews of Judaea achieved independence from the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus did not seem so interested in the Jewish rebellion, as he intended to reconquer the northern and eastern provinces which had been subdued by his father, Antiochus III. In 166 BCE Antiochus returned in triumph to Antioch where he added to the splendor and magnificence of the city by virtue of his war spoils, though this was offset by the Maccabean Revolt. Knowing of Antiochus’ western problems, King Mithridates I of Parthia took advantage of this and seized the city of Herat, disrupting the trade route from the Greek world to India. Also, the Armenians had proclaimed independence since the death of Antiochus III, something that bothered Antiochus, as well as the other “independent” peoples who were previously under Seleucid sovereignty.

In 165 BCE Antiochus marched with a large army in order to punish and conquer the Parthians and Armenians, as well as the reconquest of his father’s empire. He left behind his young son Antiochus in Antioch, who Antiochus associated as his co-ruler and successor since 170 BCE, in the care of his mother. Antiochus first attacked the Armenians, who he succeeded in conquering, offering them the same request of servitude that his father had dealt. Antiochus then advanced on Persia to fight the Parthians, in which he gained initial success. Suddenly, in 164 BCE, Antiochus died from illness. Though, according to 2 Maccabees, he died in this manner:

“But the all-seeing Lord, the God of Israel, struck him an incurable and unseen blow. As soon as he ceased speaking he was seized with a pain in his bowels for which there was no relief and with sharp internal tortures – and that very justly, for he had tortured the bowels of others with many and strange inflictions. Yet he did not in any way stop his insolence, but was even more filled with arrogance, breathing fire in his rage against the Jews, and giving orders to hasten the journey. And so it came about that he fell out of his chariot as it was rushing along, and the fall was so hard as to torture every limb of his body.”

“The Punishment of Antiochus” by Gustave Dore

His son, Antiochus V Eupator (“Good Father”), succeeded him, though his reign only lasted two years as the eldest son of Seleucus IV, Demetrius, escaped from Rome and returned to Syria and usurped the Seleucid throne. The downfall of the Seleucid Empire is often dated with the death of Antiochus IV, as the Seleucids decayed into claimants who ignited civil wars and were restricted to Syria, eventually becoming a simple buffer state that the other Mediterranean powers tolerated.

The legacy of Antiochus IV Epiphanes is of cruelty and vainglorious ambition. Certainly, his eccentric and vicious behavior made the offensive byname Epimanes ring so true. Antiochus is forever remembered as the evil king who persecuted the Jews, his name living on in Jewish writings only as an associate of cruel, inhumane barbarity against the Jewish people. Antiochus is portrayed as the “little horn” in the prophecy of Daniel: “Out of one of them came another horn, which started small but grew in power to the south and to the east and toward the Beautiful Land. It grew until it reached the host of the heavens, and it threw some of the starry host down to the earth and trampled on them. It set itself up to be as great as the commander of the army of the Lord; it took away the daily sacrifice from the Lord, and his sanctuary was thrown down. Because of rebellion, the Lord’s people and the daily sacrifice were given over to it. It prospered in everything it did, and truth was thrown to the ground.” Interestingly, the Greeks of Asia praised Antiochus for his program of Hellenization and his dedication to Hellenism, as they surnamed his son and successor Eupator. Nevertheless, Antiochus IV was a cruel, conceited king whose grand ambitions did not make him so appreciated in history, looked upon as a monster for his evil deeds.

Recommended Reading:

The House of Seleucus, E.R. Bevan

1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees

Beloved Son of Rome

Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus was a Roman politician and military commander, also known as Drusus the Elder. The younger son of Livia Drusilla, Drusus was also the legal stepson of Emperor Augustus; he was the brother of Emperor Tiberius and the father of Emperor Claudius. Drusus is distinguished for launching the first major campaigns across the Rhine and beginning the conquest of Germania. Drusus spearheaded numerous successful campaigns against the Germanic tribes; his military success made him a favorite of Augustus. He died 29 years-of-age, tragically depriving the Roman Empire of one of its best generals. The descendants of Drusus would play major roles in the continuity of the Roman Empire.

Bust of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus

Drusus was born in 38 BCE, the youngest son of Livia Drusilla and her first husband Tiberius Claudius Nero, a patrician. His original name was Decimus Claudius Drusus, though for reasons unknown Drusus chose the cognomen “Nero” to be his praenomen. Before the couple divorced, Nero was legally declared the boy’s father; Livia would divorce Nero in order to marry the triumvir and future first emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (later known as Augustus). There were rumors that Drusus was actually Augustus’ son, though this is highly unlikely. However, Claudius, during his reign as emperor, encouraged the rumors so as create the impression that he was more directly linked to Augustus. Drusus was raised in the house of Nero, along with his older brother Tiberius, until their father’s death. The relationship between Drusus and Tiberius was a famously close one, the brothers ever devoted to one another. Tiberius named his son after his brother, and Drusus did likewise with his son, the famed Germanicus.

Drusus was fast-tracked through the cursus honorum due to the patronage of his stepfather, holding the position of quaestor five years before he was legally able to do so. Augustus bestowed many honors on his stepsons, as in 15 BCE Drusus was assigned to the province of Gaul to serve as legatus Augusti pro praetore (“general of Augustus with the authority of a praetor”) after his previous military success. Likewise, a year earlier while Tiberius was away from Italy Drusus legislated in his place. That same year Drusus married Antonia Minor, a daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, sister of Augustus. Drusus gained a reputation of being completely faithful to Antonia, and the same was said of Antonia. They had several children, but only three survived to adulthood. Three emperors were direct descendants of Drusus: his son Claudius, his grandson Caligula, and his great-grandson Nero.

As governor of Gaul, Drusus established concilium Galliarum (“council of the Gaulish provinces”) and made the city of Lugdunum (modern Lyon) the headquarters of the province. The council would elect members as priests who oversaw celebratory games and venerated the goddess Roma as well as Augustus. His son Tiberius Claudius Nero (“Claudius”) was born in Lugdunum the same day the altar of the three Gauls was inaugurated in 10 BCE. Augustus annexed the Alps and the lands leading up to the Rhine and the Danube, so as to regulate the German frontier better, as he intended to annex Germania (Germany) beyond the Rhine. Augustus appointed Drusus, who was 23 years-old, to command the German campaign; Drusus was an inexperienced general at this point, but his experiences in the Alps would mold him into a great commander.

Northern Italy wasn’t completely under the domain of Rome, as a collection of Celtic tribes, specifically the Raeti, disturbed trade. In 15 BCE Drusus and his legions swept through the territory, making quick work of the Raeti. Augustus awarded the Drusus the title of praetor, encouraging Drusus to continue to campaign with unmatched success. Tiberius reinforced Drusus in the second phase of the campaign, leading legions against the Vindelici, a tribe located in modern-day Bavaria. Despite firm resistance, the Vindelici were crushed and Drusus established a new military base named Augusta Vindelicorum (modern-day Augsburg).Drusus and Tiberius marched eastward to the Kingdom of Noricum, in modern-day Austria. While Noricum was actually a trade ally of Rome, the brothers were given orders to annex it. They quickly achieved annexing Noricum without major struggle. Having completed his mission in a single campaign season, this is when Augustus gave him the authority of praetor and governorship of Gaul.

Drusus’ next assignment was to build a string of military bases along the Rhine, in preparation for the official annexation of Germania, though the Germanic tribes would not settle easily, and so methods of conquest were considered. In two years the massive military project of the age was completed, and in 12 BCE Drusus and his legions crossed the Rhine and began the campaign against the Germanic tribes. He first engaged the Sugambri and Usipete tribes, swiftly nullifying the opposition, and then continued on with an amphibious campaign to further the subjugation of the Germanic peoples. There were a few naval encounters between Drusus and the Bructeri, all ending in Roman victory. Drusus ordered some of his fleet to discover a route to the Caspian Sea, though they eventually had to turn back due to bad weather. Meanwhile, Drusus contended with the Chauci, who were defeated and sued for peace. After this Drusus returned to Gaul to winter until the forthcoming campaign season, though he used his new tribal alliances to navigate the North Sea.

“Drusus invades Germany”

Drusus was rewarded with the title of praetor urbanus by Augustus in 11 BCE; news of Drusus’ achievements caused great excitement in Rome. Drusus did not have it in him to stay in Rome, preferring to continue with his German campaign. So, Drusus took five legions and crossed the Rhine once again to subdue the Germanic tribes, ascending the Lippe and conducing military engagements against the Tencteri and Usipetes, in which he was victorious. Forts were then established in the region; on their way to the Weser Drusus came upon the Chatti, who fiercely fought the Romans but were eventually subjugated. Drusus then ordered the construction of forts in the Taunus Mountains, deciding to winter there. This was the first time a Roman army had spent a river on the right bank of the Rhine. On the return journey Drusus and the legions were ambushed by the Cherusci at Arbalo, quickly devolving into a hard-strung battle where the Cherusci failed to capitalize on their initial advantage and the Romans managed to defeat the German attackers. The soldiers then proclaimed Drusus as imperator.

To secure his position Drusus garrisoned men at multiple outposts, deciding again to winter in Germania. He rejoined his wife and children for a time at Lugdunum before returning to Rome. Drusus reported directly to Augustus to divulge his achievements, in which Augustus honored him with an ovation and, for a second time, closed the doors of the Temple of Janus, signifying that the Roman world was at peace. Drusus was then granted the office of proconsul for 10 BCE. In 9 BCE Drusus was easily elected consul, though he left Rome before assuming the office in order to trounce more Germanic tribes. Drusus’ consulship gave him the chance to gain the spolia opima, the most honorable of any war trophy a Roman commander could gain. Drusus eagerly returned to the field, but not before stopping in Lugdunum to confer with the council and dedicate a temple to Augustus. Drusus led his army through the territories of the Marsi and Cherusci until he crossed the Elbe. It is said that Drusus encountered an apparition of a German woman who demanded he leave her homeland immediately and that his days were numbered. Drusus turned back, but not before erecting a trophy to commemorate his reaching of the Elbe. Sources agree that Drusus sought at least three Germanic chieftains during his campaigns, engaging in “dazzling displays of singe combat”. The sources, while ambiguous, do imply that Drusus did take the spolia opim from a Germanic king, making him the fourth and last Roman to have this honor.

“Drusus and the Germanic Woman”

On his return Drusus fell from his horse, mortally injuring him as he lingered on for a month. Tiberius joined Drusus after hearing of this injury, and soon after Tiberius arrived Drusus died. Interestingly, before his death Drusus wrote to Tiberius complaining about Augustus’ rule, implying he may have had republican sentiments, and that he refused to return to Rome for an unknown reason. Drusus was cremated and his ashes were placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus. The Senate declared Drusus fecundi ingeni (“fecund genius”). Legionaries erected a monument (the Drususstein) to him in Mogontiacum (modern Mainz). Drusus’ family was gifted the hereditary victory title of Germanicus (“Victor of Germania), which his eldest son inherited as his byname. Augustus decreed that festivals were to be held in Mogontiacum on Drusus’ death day and birthday. Augustus also wrote a biography of Drusus, but it has not survived. Livia, his mother, was greatly affected by his death, requiring the help of the philosopher Areus who convinced her to put up statues and images of Drusus, also instructing her to speak often about him.

Upon Claudius accession Drusus received new public honors as well as celebratory games in the Circus Maximus to be held on his birthday. Claudius also constructed a road from Italy into Raetia, following Drusus’ route, where road-markers were stationed commemorating Drusus’ campaign achievements. Drusus was revered as a national hero, fondly looked back on as one of Rome’s greatest generals. All accounts refer to Drusus being of good character and sorely missed.

Recommended Reading:

Eager for Glory: The Untold Story of Drusus the Elder, Conqueror of Germania, Lindsay Powell

The King’s Final Cry

According to tradition, the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon was thought to have been founded in the late 9th century BCE by a man named Caranus, supposedly a descendant of the mythical hero Heracles and thus the progenitor of the Argead dynasty. The Argeads would rule Macedon for five more centuries, the most famous members of the clan would be Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE the grand empire he created was fractured in the ensuing Wars of the Diadochi (“Successors”), and in the concluding years of the 4th century BCE the Argead dynasty would cease, with the deaths of Philip III Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s half-brother, and Alexander IV, his son.

The supplanting dynasty would be the Antigonids, founded by the diadochus (“successor”) Antignous I Monophthalmus (“the One-Eye”) and his son Demetrius I Poliorcetes (“the Besieger”). During the majority of the Hellenistic Age most of Greece was under the rule of the Antigonid dynasty, its most celebrated member being Philip V, called the “beloved of the Greeks”. Though, Philip’s ambitions would put him in conflict with the rising power of the Roman Republic who also wished to subjugate the east. Several Greek city-states sought protection from Rome, dissatisfied and tired of living under the Macedonian hegemony for so long. The Romans waged two wars against Philip V in order to halt his schemes of conquest and claim Greece for themselves. The Romans were victorious and the Antigonid Kingdom was restricted solely to Macedon, the Greeks finally “free”.

However, it would be Philip’s son and successor, Perseus, who again challenged Roman dominance and strove to reestablish his kingdom as the premier power in Greece. Perseus’ challenge would end in failure, as after the Battle of Pydna (168 BCE) the Macedonian monarchy would be dissolved and the Romans would install four republics to govern the region. With the defeat of Perseus, the Romans would become the masters of the Greek world and the supreme authority of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Coin depicting Perseus of Macedon

Perseus was born circa 212 BCE, the eldest son of Philip V and a concubine, most likely Polycratia of Argos. Perseus was personally trained by his father to be a military commander, as per tradition of the royal house of Macedon. Perseus went on to command battalions in his father’s wars against the Roman Republic and the Aetolian League, and he was noted in his besiegement of Amphilochia in 189 BCE. He also commanded victories against the Paeonians, who were aggressive and fearful of Macedon due to Philip’s expansionist aims. Philip then founded the city of Perseis in Paeonia in honor of Perseus. Though, Perseus feared that despite his favorable grooming by his father, he would conclusively be passed on in favor of his legitimate younger brother, Demetrius, whose mother Philip had taken as his queen. Also, Perseus was anxious due to possible Roman interference, as Demetrius had been a hostage in Rome (per the demands of the Romans after Philip’s defeat) and became a true friend to his detainers. So, in an effort to seize his inheritance, Perseus plotted against Demetrius for a three-year period. Eventually, Perseus succeeded in staging a plot in which he managed to convince his father that Demetrius was a traitor who was planning a coup in favor of a pro-Roman policy. Philip subsequently had Demetrius executed, securing Perseus’ inheritance.

In 179 BCE Philip died (his health declined due to the execution of Demetrius), Perseus now triumphant in his venture to seize the Macedonian throne. He would go on to strengthen Macedon’s image and resources in both diplomatic and militaristic fashions. He issued amnesty to all exiled debtors, pardoning those convicted or suspected of treason, and even returning property to those who were in exile. All the while, Macedon’s immediate neighbors feared for their safety, the Dardani sending an embassy to Rome to warn them about Perseus’ presence and intentions. Though, most prominently was Perseus’ conflict with Abrupolis, a Thracian tribal-king who had sprung attacks on Macedonian dominions, having overrun the gold mines of Mount Pangaios. Perseus would then oust Abrupolis from his territories, an unfortunate situation, as Abrupolis was a Roman ally. Though, his victory over Aburpolis seemed to impress the Greeks even more, earning Perseus the favor of the Greek city-states, as well as the Greeks of Asia Minor.

Perseus’ role in the death of Demetrius did not endear him to the Romans, though both parties came together to renew the peace treaty, one of first acts of Perseus’ reign. Though, the Romans were still ever suspicious of Perseus’ ambitions, as he had started to display behavior that aggravated them. Perseus engineered an expansion of Macedonian power and influence, having a remarkable diplomatic offensive, as in 178 BCE he accomplished strengthening the relationship between Macedonian and the Seleucid Empire, having married Laodice V, daughter of Seleucus IV Philopator (“Father-Loving”); with her he had four children. He then secured an alliance with Prusias II Cynegus (“the Hunter”) of Bithynia, marrying his sister Apama IV to him. He would also repair relations with Rhodes, advocating for “Greek freedom” which the Rhodians held dear, as well as mending the relationships with the Aetolian League and Thessaly. He even struck military alliances with Boeotia and Cotys IV of the Odrysian Kingdom. By the late 170s BCE Perseus could field an army larger than his father ever could – of some 43,000 soldiers. Never since Alexander had the Macedonian army been so large. Perseus utilized this army to suppress a rebellion in Dolopia, later paying a ceremonial visit to Delphi with his army still with him. Certain Greek leaders, however, became alarmed at Perseus’ military might, seeking Eumenes II Soter (“the Savior”) of Pergamon for help. Eumenes had been a consistent collaborator with the Roman Republic, having helped them in their victories against Philip V and Antiochus III Megas (“the Great”). In 172 BCE he personally appeared in the Senate, claiming that Perseus was as severe threat to the stability of the Greek world. Eumenes claimed that Perseus had fostered ambitions of conquest ever since he took the Macedonian throne, also declaring that Perseus was respected and feared in the east, and that his ambitions were ever-growing as he made alliances with Prusias II and Antiochus IV Epiphanes (“God-Manifest”). Eumenes said that if Rome were to ignore these developments then Perseus might attack Italy.

Envoys from Perseus reached the Senate a few days after Eumenes’ speech, professing that Perseus had not done anything hostile to spark Roman intervention. When the envoys returned to Macedon they told Perseus that while the Romans did not seek war they were, however, embittered due to Eumenes’ efforts. Perseus, angered and frustrated, sent assassins after Eumenes, but their attempts failed. Gaius Valerius, a senator who had been dispatched to oversee Greece and monitor Perseus, agreed with Eumenes’ claims that Perseus intended to reestablish the Macedonian hegemony. The Senate was convinced that Perseus was an immediate threat to their supremacy over the Greeks, and so the declared war against Perseus in 171 BCE. A commission was sent to Greece to analyze the situation there, where then one of the commissioners, Marcius, was invited by Perseus to attend a meeting in which he denounced the claims of Eumenes. Marcius advised Perseus to send an embassy to Rome and declare an armistice for safe passage for the envoys. Rome was not yet prepared for war with Perseus, only now having assembled an army. Perseus agreed to Marcius’ requests, and many in the Senate considered this a diplomatic achievement. However, the older senators disregarded this act of diplomacy and called for military action. The Senate was induced to send war-ships and soldiers to occupy Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, in order to prevent Perseus from garrisoning it. The ambassadors of Perseus arrived at Rome, arguing for peace, but the Senate would not hear them out. With the news of war reaching Perseus, he then marshaled his entire army at the city of Citium, eager for victory.

Perseus marched into northern Thessaly and seized all the towns north of the River Peneus. He then moved on to southern Thessaly, where he met the Roman army, supported by troops of Eumenes, and commenced the Battle of Callinicus (171 BCE). Perseus was victorious and the Roman-Pergamese army retreated briefly, though this did not overall affect the war’s progress as while it halted the Roman campaign, the Romans refused to desist, even when Perseus attempted to negotiate a peace. The Romans plundered several Greek cities and towns in the venture to cripple Perseus’ Greek support, making their way to Epirus. An Epirot leader wrote to Perseus for help, in which Perseus hurriedly met the Romans at Anticyra and was victorious once again. Perseus then decided to attack the Illyrians who were allowing safe passage for the Romans. The Illyrian king Gentius was wavering in who to support, though he held mixed Roman-Illyrian garrisons in his cities. Perseus marched on the city of Uscana, sending envoys to the garrison officers to peacefully surrender the city. They refused, and thus Perseus besieged the city. After a successful siege, the garrison commanders asked to be allowed to leave with their weapons. Perseus agreed, but then disarmed them, then moving the city’s population to Stubera and sold them as slaves. Perseus sent ambassadors to Gentius requesting an alliance, though Gentius replied he did not have enough money to support Perseus in the war. Perseus ravaged Illyrian cities and returned to Macedon.

The Romans decided to advance on Macedon, though they had to march through the Olympus range which gave Perseus enough time to evacuate from Pella to Pydna. Skirmishes about Macedon and Thessaly did not bring the Romans or Perseus any favors, only depleting their resources and soldiers. In late 169 BCE ambassadors from Bithynia and Rhodes appeared in the Senate asking for peace. Prusias had promised Perseus to act as a mediator for peace, and the Rhodians pleaded for the war’s end as it disrupted trade and they had begun a friendship with Perseus, of which the Romans forced the Rhodians to stop their Macedonian support and help Rome. The Rhodians had also sent envoys to Perseus to request for peace. The Senate, who considered this request arrogant, denied such peace. Once Perseus was defeated, then Rome would consider how to make due retribution.

In 168 BCE one of the consuls for the year was Lucius Aemilius Paullus, who was assigned to command the Roman campaign against Perseus. Meanwhile, Perseus sought aid from Antiochus IV and, surprisingly, Eumenes. Antiochus refused to help, and Perseus met with Eumenes in person to discuss an alliance, wanting peace in the Greek world. Despite being an enemy of Macedon, Eumenes considered Perseus’ proposal, yet demanded he immediately receive a sum of money for his support. The negotiations failed, and Eumenes continued to support the Romans. However, Perseus managed to gain an alliance with Gentius, in which Perseus pressured him to attack any Romans within his domain. Unfortunately, the Romans put Gentius under siege, where then Gentius surrendered and asked for a truce. Paullus’ campaign progressed favorably, as he gained a victory against Perseus’ army in the Pythian mountains which compelled Perseus to again withdraw to Pydna. Paullus met Perseus at Pydna in June, where the decisive battle of the war took place. The battle was hard fought and bloody, especially for the Macedonians, having already suffered great losses in any battle they had with the Romans. The Romans won the day, Perseus fled to Pella where his advisors and friends shunned him for the great defeat. The Battle of Pydna broke the Macedonian strength and made Perseus a fugitive in his own country.

Ambassadors of Perseus reached Paullus, giving him a letter that pleaded for mercy, which was “anything but kingly”. Paullus did not reply, and so Perseus sent him another letter begging Paullus to confer on their relations. Nothing came of it, and Perseus tried to flee but was caught by Roman officers. Perseus surrendered to Paullus, who was then taken captive and shipped to Rome to be paraded in Paullus’ triumph. The Senate decided to dissolve the Macedonian kingdom into four republics loyal to Rome, extinguishing the Macedonian monarchy forever. In 146 BCE the Romans would suspend the four republics and formally annex Macedon as a Roman province. With this victory the Romans tightened their control on Greece, granting voices to the pro-Roman factions in Greek cities. Once Paullus returned to Rome he celebrated a triumph, Perseus and his family marched in chains behind Paullus’ golden chariot. Perseus would remain in captivity for the rest of his life, dying in 165 or 162 BCE. His young son, Alexander, was educated in an Italian town where he became acquainted with metalworking and the Latin language, becoming a public notary.

“King Perseus and Aemilius Paullus” by Jean-François-Pierre Peyron

Perseus was the last of the Antigonid dynasty and the last king of Macedon in history. He inherited the ambitions of his father, perhaps to a more practical and capable scale, though Perseus could not bring victory and glory to the Macedonian kingdom as it had been in Alexander’s day. Like many of the Macedonian kings, he wished to be an Alexander-type figure, something his father emulated, yet the power and might of the Romans were too much for the Macedonians to recover such glories. Beginning his reign as a capable and ambitious ruler, Perseus descended into a defeated fugitive whose schemes and cruelties followed his name wherever he went. Forsaken by his people, retinue, and even his royal title, Perseus had no choice but to surrender to Aemilius Paullus and let the Romans reign as overlords of the Greek world. Perseus represented the last challenge to the Roman Republic if they were to completely conquer Greece. The line of Antigonus the One-Eye ended in utter capitulation, as well as the heritage of the Macedonian kings.

Recommended Reading:

History of Rome, Livy

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith

The History of Ancient Greece, J. Giles

A History of Macedonia, Robert Malcom Errington

Invincible

Demetrius I Aniketos (“the Invincible”) was a Greek king of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom who is known for creating the Indo-Greek state, coupled with his military renown. Demetrius inherited the easternmost Hellenistic kingdom which had originally been a province of the Seleucid Empire until circa 250 BCE, where after it struggled with independence, expansion, and usurpers. Demetrius, however, was ambitious and capable enough to invade India and successfully conquered most of the northwest Indian territory. Demetrius was undefeated in battle and was posthumously given the epithet Aniketos – “the Invincible”. Contemporaries and historians refer to Demetrius as the “second Alexander”.

Coin depicting Demetrius I Aniketos (the elephant scalp indicates his conquests in India)

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a Hellenistic state that was created circa 256-246 BCE when the Seleucid governor Diodotus seceded his province (Bactria) from the Seleucid Empire. This independence movement was either before or after the death of King Antiochus II Theos (“the God”); the high-chronology suggests Antiochus was deprived of Bactria during his mid-reign, mostly theorized because Antiochus issued very few coins from Bactria. The low-chronology, however, suggests Diodotus claimed independence just after Antiochus’ death, whereas the following catastrophic Third Syrian War critically weakened the Seleucid Empire. In 246 BCE Pharaoh Ptolemy III Euergetes (“the Benefactor”) captured Antioch, the Seleucid capital, causing more eastern provinces to seceded, notably Andragoras, the governor of Parthia. Andragoras apparently conceived an alliance with Diodotus, both of them claiming to be independent kings. Though, the Parni tribe soon invaded and conquered Parthia, killing Andragoras in the process. This cut off Bactria from the rest of the Greek world, reducing overland trade, though sea trade between Bactria and the Ptolemaic Kingdom developed.

Diodotus I died circa 239 BCE, posthumously given the epithet Soter (“the Savior”). He was succeeded by his son Diodotus II, who had made peace with Arsaces I of Parthia in order to forestall the Seleucid reconquest of Parthia and Bactria. Circa 230 BCE Didotous was killed by the governor of Sogdiana and his brother-in-law, Euthydemus. Euthydemus, father of Demetrius, usurped the Greco-Bactrian throne, founding the Euthydemid dynasty. Not much is known about his reign except circa 209/208 BCE Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid King Antiochus III Megas (“the Great”), who had been on an anabasis of the east. After a two/three year siege of his capital Bactra, which caused great exhaustion for both Euthydemus and Antiochus, Euthydemus relented and accepted Antiochus as his overlord, obtaining an “honorable peace”. Demetrius was sent to Antiochus to conduct the peace negotiations. Antiochus was highly impressed with the demeanor of Demetrius, so much so that he offered the hand of his daughter to Demetrius. Polybius writes: “And after several journeys of Teleas to and fro between the two, Euthydemus at last sent his son Demetrius to confirm the terms of the treaty. Antiochus received the young prince; and judging from his appearance, conversation, and the dignity of his manners that he was worthy of royal power, he first promised to give him one of his own daughters, and secondly conceded the royal title to his father.” As Demetrius is referred to as a “young prince”, it suggested he is around 16 years-old, making his birthdate circa 222 BCE.

Euthydemus died circa 200 BCE (possibly 195 BCE) and was succeeded by Demetrius as king. Nothing is really known of Demetrius’ early reign, only that he was already recognized as a great conqueror, as the Kuliab inscription (dated 200-195 BCE) details: “Heliodotus dedicated this fragrant altar for Hestia, venerable goddess, illustrious amongst all, in the grove of Zeus, with beautiful trees; he made libations and sacrifices so that the greatest of all kings Euthydemus, as well as his son, the glorious, victorious and remarkable Demetrius, be preserved of all pains, with the help of Tyche with divine thoughts.” It is possible that during the last years of Euthydemus’ reign that the Greco-Bactrians made advancements into the Indian subcontinent. Demetrius is referred to as Demetrius Callinicus, meaning “Demetrius the Glorious Conqueror” or “Demetrius the Beautiful Victor”.  In 180 BCE (or the earlier date of 185 BCE) Demetrius launched an invasion of northwestern India, as several years earlier the once powerful Mauryan Empire was dissolved after the victories of Indian general Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the new Shunga Empire. The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom is considered to have been allies with the Muaryan Empire, though Demetrius’ invasion might have been to protect the Greeks of India.

Demetrius may have first recovered the province of Arachosia, south of the Hindu Kush. He then founded the city of Demetrias, said to have been within the dominion of the Parthians. The campaign is said to have gone as far as Pataliputra in eastern India, though this is generally attested to the efforts of the later Indo-Greek king Menander I Soter. It is theorized that Demetrius only invaded and conquered modern-day Pakistan, as accounts say he occupied a large part of the Indus Delta. Nevertheless, it is said Demetrius (along with the later Menander I) subjugated more Indian tribes than Alexander the Great had. With these conquests, Demetrius created the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which lasted for more than two centuries, albeit the legitimate rulers varied. Demetrius is speculated to have ruled in the city of Taxila, where many of his coins have been found. The Indo-Greeks ruled northwestern India, while the Shungas held dominion over central and eastern India.

The Indo-Greek Kingdom, circa 180 BCE

Demetrius was undefeated in his conquests, believed to have assumed the title “King of India” for his achievements south of the Hindu Kush. On his coins Demetrius is depicted wearing an elephant scalp headdress, in the same manner as Alexander is depicted on the coins of Ptolemy I Soter, a token of his victories in India. Demetrius is attributed to have initiated the Yavana era of India (Yavana being the Indian name for the Greeks). The culture and art of Greco-Buddhism is said to have flourished under Demetrius and the later Indo-Greek kings; Demetrius apparently practiced Buddhism along with his ancestral Greek polytheism. After 180 BCE nothing is known of Demetrius’ life, as he died of unknown reasons at an unknown time. The Indo-Greek Kingdom did not survive as one entity, as many rival usurpers and chieftains claimed specific territories and thus variant kingdoms emerged with their own dynasties, akin to the aftermath of Alexander’s death. The Indo-Greek king Agathocles Dikaios (“the Just”), a successor and possible son of Demetrius, minted coins bearing the effigy of Demetrius, posthumously qualifying him as Aniketos – “the Invincible”, a cult title which Alexander adorned.

Demetrius is regarded as a legend and enigma, for what we know about him stems from his military achievements and comparison to Alexander. Apparently of dignified character, Demetrius stands as a great conqueror who brought about a new era to the Indian subcontinent. And just like Alexander, none of Demetrius’ successors quite prospered like he did.

Recommended Reading:

The Greeks in Bactria and India, W. W. Tarn

Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Osmund Bopearachchi

The Histories, Polybius

Geographica, Strabo

A Decadent King, A Decaying Empire

Antiochus VIII, known by the epithets Epiphanes (“God-Manifest”), Callinicus (“Beautiful Victor”), and Philometor (“Mother-Loving”), though popularly nicknamed Grypus (“Hook-Nose”), was the nineteenth Seleucid king, ruling essentially Syria as a rump state as the great Seleucid Empire had gradually declined to Syrian borders. Crowned as a boy, as he aged Antiochus VIII cultivated an image of decadency, luxury, and divine favor, despite the obvious shortcomings and issues of the Seleucid Empire at the time. His sons would fight over the rule of Syria, stimulating the decay of the Seleucids.

Coin depicting Antiochus VIII Grypus

Prior to Antiochus’ birth, the Seleucid Empire had sustained a major decline in power and authority, stemming from civil war and external threats. Ever since the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid Empire had been in an almost frequent state of civil war, whether it be from cousins and brothers fighting for the throne or the establishment of pretender kings. Also, rival powers had increasingly grown stronger and more able than the Seleucids, most notably the expansion of the Parthian Empire and the pressures put on by the Roman Republic. Rebellions in provinces had as well hindered Seleucid control, as Judaea had become completely independent. The Parthians had claimed Mesopotamia and the Persian plateau as their own, restricting Seleucid influence exclusively to Syria.

Antiochus was the son of Demetrius II Nicator (“the Victor”) and Cleopatra Thea (“the Goddess”); his birthdate is unknown, though some had suggested the year 141 BCE. His father, Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne in 146 BCE with the backing of Pharaoh Ptolemy VI Philometor. The Egyptian king forced his daughter, Cleopatra, to divorce the pretender king Alexander I Balas (“Lord”), who had then been defeated by Demetrius in the Battle of Antioch (145 BCE). Demetrius proved to be an aspiring but fundamentally unsuccessful and reckless king, desiring to reclaim past Seleucid provinces which had been ruled by the Parthians. Demetrius was not a popular king, being seen as a puppet of Ptolemy VI’s inclination. The citizens of Syrian Antioch rebelled against Demetrius’ rule, urged on by the actions of the Seleucid general Diodotus Tryphon (“the Magnificent, Luxurious, Arrogant”) who had proclaimed Antiochus VI Dionysus (“God of Wine”), the young son of Alexander and Cleopatra, as king. Diodotus conquered Antioch, the Seleucid capital, and the rival king Antiochus VI was regarded as the legitimate Seleucid ruler. However, the child Antiochus did not rule in his own right, being used as a figure-head of Diodotus.  In 141 BCE Antiochus VI died, presumably killed on Diodotus’ orders, who then claimed the Seleucid kingship as his own.

In 139 BCE Demetrius launched a campaign against the ever-active Parthians, but this resulted in his imprisonment by them and the loss of Babylonia. With Demetrius detained by the Parthians, this motivated his brother Antiochus VII Euergetes (“the Benefactor”), nicknamed Sidetes (“from Side”), to take the throne, marrying Cleopatra with who he had several children. Antiochus VII successfully campaigned against Diodotus, who was either executed or committed suicide. By 130 BCE Antiochus initiated a campaign against the Parthians to reconquer old Seleucid territory, wishing to restore the Seleucid Empire to its former glory. The Parthian King Phraates II released Demetrius from captivity hoping the brothers would wage war against each other, as Antiochus was gaining much ground in his military expedition. However, Antiochus VII died on the battlefield before Demetrius could contact him. Demetrius safely returned to Syria and resumed his rule.

Demetrius learned of the instability of Syria, many of his subjects detesting him for his cruelties, vices, and past humiliation. Knowing of his unpopularity, the Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra II dispatched an army to Demetrius in the effort to stir up war between him and her brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes (nicknamed Physcon – “Potbelly”). Cleopatra II’s troops, however, proved disloyal and adhered to Ptolemy VIII, who then set up a pretender king named Alexander II Zabinas (“Purchased Slave”) against Demetrius. In 126 BCE Demetrius was defeated in a skirmish at Damascus, prompting him to flee to the city of Ptolemais where his wife Cleopatra Thea resided. Cleopatra, however, closed the gates to him, forcing him to flee to Tyre where he was killed. Alexander II ruled parts of Syria, but was not ultimately recognized as the legitimate sovereign. Cleopatra crowned her eldest son by Demetrius, Seleucus V Philometor, ruling as regnant. In 125 BCE Cleopatra had Seleucus killed, possibly because Seleucus intended to rule without her authority or because he perchance wanted to avenge his father who had been betrayed by Cleopatra, which frightened her. Cleopatra then crowned the teenage Antiochus VIII, defining herself as his co-ruler.

Coin depicting Antiochus VII Grypus and Cleopatra Thea as co-rulers

Cleopatra Thea, an ambitious and unpleasant woman, became wary of her son Antiochus as he displayed an attitude of independence from her guidance. By 123 BCE Antiochus defeated the pretender Alexander II, and now seized control of the Seleucid Empire in his own name and sovereignty. Antiochus had married the Ptolemaic princess Tryphaena, promoting her as the true queen of the Seleucid Empire, which invoked a hostile reaction from his mother. In 121 BCE Cleopatra decided that her son must die, prompting her to poison a cup of wine which she offered him when he returned from a hunt. Suspicious of his mother’s kind gesture, Antiochus forced Cleopatra to drink the wine, which killed her.

For the next five years Antiochus developed an image of a luxurious and hedonistic ruler, hosting lavish banquets and fostering an essence of royal magnificence. Stories claim that after splendid parties Antiochus sent food home with his guests who had attended, along with beasts of burden and attendants. Antiochus’ feasts and magnanimous character were of a conscious image, as Antiochus wanted to display the Seleucid Empire as being bountiful and opulent, despite the obvious harsh reality. Antiochus strove to invoke the Hellenistic idea of Tryphe (“Extravagance” or “the Good Life”), trying to reform the image of the Seleucids as prolific lavish monarchs, instead of the impression of a quarrelling royal family. Another aspect of Antiochus’ image was his appeal to be divinely favored and essentially divine himself, taking the epithet Epiphanes – “God-Manifest”, encouraging the portrayal as the supreme god incarnate of the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus VIII proved to be a very popular king, with his decadence and grandiose persona attracting Syrian subjects to his court just to experience the luxury illustrated. Though, this continued extravagance heavily depleted the royal treasury. The unsightly, lazy appearance of Antiochus on coins gave him a relatable character, much unlike the idealized portraits of previous Seleucid rulers.

In 116 BCE Antiochus’ half-brother (son of Antiochus VII), also named Antiochus, challenged his rule of Syria. Having lived in exile, when he returned to Syria he proclaimed himself Antiochus IX Eusebes (“the Pious”), though he was nicknamed Cyzicenus (“from Cyzicus”). Antiochus IX had married Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra IV, sister of Antiochus VIII’s wife, who had recently been divorced from her husband and brother Ptolemy IX Soter (“the Savior”), also known as Lathyros (“Chickpea”). This marriage supplied Antiochus IX with an army, which he then used to occupy southern Syria. Antiochus IX then seized Antioch, though in 112 BCE he was compelled to flee as Antiochus VIII’s army hounded him throughout Syria. Antiochus VIII then laid siege to Antioch, knowing Cleopatra IV still held control of the city and its garrison. Antiochus had brought his wife Tryphaena with him, and when the city was breached Cleopatra hid at the sanctuary of Daphne. Tryphaena hated her sister Cleopatra, demanding she be executed. Over the protests of her husband, Tryphaena ordered the soldiers to kill Cleopatra, which was seen as dramatic. A year later, Typhaena was imprisoned by Antiochus IX after he had defeated Antiochus VIII in a battle. She was then executed, used as a sacrifice to the deified soul of Cleopatra IV. Antiochus VIII would marry again in 103/102 BCE; his new wife Cleopatra Selene I, a sister of Tryphaena.

By 110 BCE both Seleucid kings sought allies in Egypt, Antiochus VIII pleading to the new Ptolemaic king Ptolemy X Alexander. Meanwhile, Antiochus IX won the support of the deposed king Ptolemy IX. It appears Antiochus VIII also won the approval of Rome, furthering his cause of rightful kingship. The city of Antioch would persistently change its loyalties, as the city had become the battleground for the civil war. Thoroughly exhausted, the Seleucid kings decided to divide Syria between them, Antiochus VIII taking the north while Antiochus IX held the south. In 96 BCE Antiochus VIII was murdered by his minister Heracleon, who then tried to usurp the throne but failed, presumably due to the presence of Antiochus’ sons.

The decaying Seleucid Empire now belonged to Antiochus IX, who then immediately married the widowed Cleopatra Selene. However, his sole rule would not last as the eldest son Antiochus VIII then crowned himself Seleucus VI Epiphanes. Antiochus IX was killed in battle, and the blood feud would continue with his son and the sons of Antiochus VIII.  Antiochus’ sons would all declare themselves kings in time, but they practically held no real power as Syria was essentially a buffer state to be used by the major powers of the Mediterranean.

Antiochus VIII was the last Seleucid king to hold any actual power, for a short time, and was also the last Seleucid to be popular and loved amongst his subjects, for the enduring Seleucids were simply warlords whose ambitions did not reflect reality. Antiochus used his power to portray an empire and court of an age long past. He wished to bring prestige and splendor to the Seleucid Empire once again, as in the days of Seleucus the Victor and Antiochus the Great.

Recommended Reading:

The House of Seleucus, E.R. Bevan

History of Rome (“Syrian Wars”), Appian

Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Justin