According to tradition, the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon was thought to have been founded in the late 9th century BCE by a man named Caranus, supposedly a descendant of the mythical hero Heracles and thus the progenitor of the Argead dynasty. The Argeads would rule Macedon for five more centuries, the most famous members of the clan would be Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE the grand empire he created was fractured in the ensuing Wars of the Diadochi (“Successors”), and in the concluding years of the 4th century BCE the Argead dynasty would cease, with the deaths of Philip III Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s half-brother, and Alexander IV, his son.
The supplanting dynasty would be the Antigonids, founded by the diadochus (“successor”) Antignous I Monophthalmus (“the One-Eye”) and his son Demetrius I Poliorcetes (“the Besieger”). During the majority of the Hellenistic Age most of Greece was under the rule of the Antigonid dynasty, its most celebrated member being Philip V, called the “beloved of the Greeks”. Though, Philip’s ambitions would put him in conflict with the rising power of the Roman Republic who also wished to subjugate the east. Several Greek city-states sought protection from Rome, dissatisfied and tired of living under the Macedonian hegemony for so long. The Romans waged two wars against Philip V in order to halt his schemes of conquest and claim Greece for themselves. The Romans were victorious and the Antigonid Kingdom was restricted solely to Macedon, the Greeks finally “free”.
However, it would be Philip’s son and successor, Perseus, who again challenged Roman dominance and strove to reestablish his kingdom as the premier power in Greece. Perseus’ challenge would end in failure, as after the Battle of Pydna (168 BCE) the Macedonian monarchy would be dissolved and the Romans would install four republics to govern the region. With the defeat of Perseus, the Romans would become the masters of the Greek world and the supreme authority of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Coin depicting Perseus of Macedon
Perseus was born circa 212 BCE, the eldest son of Philip V and a concubine, most likely Polycratia of Argos. Perseus was personally trained by his father to be a military commander, as per tradition of the royal house of Macedon. Perseus went on to command battalions in his father’s wars against the Roman Republic and the Aetolian League, and he was noted in his besiegement of Amphilochia in 189 BCE. He also commanded victories against the Paeonians, who were aggressive and fearful of Macedon due to Philip’s expansionist aims. Philip then founded the city of Perseis in Paeonia in honor of Perseus. Though, Perseus feared that despite his favorable grooming by his father, he would conclusively be passed on in favor of his legitimate younger brother, Demetrius, whose mother Philip had taken as his queen. Also, Perseus was anxious due to possible Roman interference, as Demetrius had been a hostage in Rome (per the demands of the Romans after Philip’s defeat) and became a true friend to his detainers. So, in an effort to seize his inheritance, Perseus plotted against Demetrius for a three-year period. Eventually, Perseus succeeded in staging a plot in which he managed to convince his father that Demetrius was a traitor who was planning a coup in favor of a pro-Roman policy. Philip subsequently had Demetrius executed, securing Perseus’ inheritance.
In 179 BCE Philip died (his health declined due to the execution of Demetrius), Perseus now triumphant in his venture to seize the Macedonian throne. He would go on to strengthen Macedon’s image and resources in both diplomatic and militaristic fashions. He issued amnesty to all exiled debtors, pardoning those convicted or suspected of treason, and even returning property to those who were in exile. All the while, Macedon’s immediate neighbors feared for their safety, the Dardani sending an embassy to Rome to warn them about Perseus’ presence and intentions. Though, most prominently was Perseus’ conflict with Abrupolis, a Thracian tribal-king who had sprung attacks on Macedonian dominions, having overrun the gold mines of Mount Pangaios. Perseus would then oust Abrupolis from his territories, an unfortunate situation, as Abrupolis was a Roman ally. Though, his victory over Aburpolis seemed to impress the Greeks even more, earning Perseus the favor of the Greek city-states, as well as the Greeks of Asia Minor.
Perseus’ role in the death of Demetrius did not endear him to the Romans, though both parties came together to renew the peace treaty, one of first acts of Perseus’ reign. Though, the Romans were still ever suspicious of Perseus’ ambitions, as he had started to display behavior that aggravated them. Perseus engineered an expansion of Macedonian power and influence, having a remarkable diplomatic offensive, as in 178 BCE he accomplished strengthening the relationship between Macedonian and the Seleucid Empire, having married Laodice V, daughter of Seleucus IV Philopator (“Father-Loving”); with her he had four children. He then secured an alliance with Prusias II Cynegus (“the Hunter”) of Bithynia, marrying his sister Apama IV to him. He would also repair relations with Rhodes, advocating for “Greek freedom” which the Rhodians held dear, as well as mending the relationships with the Aetolian League and Thessaly. He even struck military alliances with Boeotia and Cotys IV of the Odrysian Kingdom. By the late 170s BCE Perseus could field an army larger than his father ever could – of some 43,000 soldiers. Never since Alexander had the Macedonian army been so large. Perseus utilized this army to suppress a rebellion in Dolopia, later paying a ceremonial visit to Delphi with his army still with him. Certain Greek leaders, however, became alarmed at Perseus’ military might, seeking Eumenes II Soter (“the Savior”) of Pergamon for help. Eumenes had been a consistent collaborator with the Roman Republic, having helped them in their victories against Philip V and Antiochus III Megas (“the Great”). In 172 BCE he personally appeared in the Senate, claiming that Perseus was as severe threat to the stability of the Greek world. Eumenes claimed that Perseus had fostered ambitions of conquest ever since he took the Macedonian throne, also declaring that Perseus was respected and feared in the east, and that his ambitions were ever-growing as he made alliances with Prusias II and Antiochus IV Epiphanes (“God-Manifest”). Eumenes said that if Rome were to ignore these developments then Perseus might attack Italy.
Envoys from Perseus reached the Senate a few days after Eumenes’ speech, professing that Perseus had not done anything hostile to spark Roman intervention. When the envoys returned to Macedon they told Perseus that while the Romans did not seek war they were, however, embittered due to Eumenes’ efforts. Perseus, angered and frustrated, sent assassins after Eumenes, but their attempts failed. Gaius Valerius, a senator who had been dispatched to oversee Greece and monitor Perseus, agreed with Eumenes’ claims that Perseus intended to reestablish the Macedonian hegemony. The Senate was convinced that Perseus was an immediate threat to their supremacy over the Greeks, and so the declared war against Perseus in 171 BCE. A commission was sent to Greece to analyze the situation there, where then one of the commissioners, Marcius, was invited by Perseus to attend a meeting in which he denounced the claims of Eumenes. Marcius advised Perseus to send an embassy to Rome and declare an armistice for safe passage for the envoys. Rome was not yet prepared for war with Perseus, only now having assembled an army. Perseus agreed to Marcius’ requests, and many in the Senate considered this a diplomatic achievement. However, the older senators disregarded this act of diplomacy and called for military action. The Senate was induced to send war-ships and soldiers to occupy Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, in order to prevent Perseus from garrisoning it. The ambassadors of Perseus arrived at Rome, arguing for peace, but the Senate would not hear them out. With the news of war reaching Perseus, he then marshaled his entire army at the city of Citium, eager for victory.
Perseus marched into northern Thessaly and seized all the towns north of the River Peneus. He then moved on to southern Thessaly, where he met the Roman army, supported by troops of Eumenes, and commenced the Battle of Callinicus (171 BCE). Perseus was victorious and the Roman-Pergamese army retreated briefly, though this did not overall affect the war’s progress as while it halted the Roman campaign, the Romans refused to desist, even when Perseus attempted to negotiate a peace. The Romans plundered several Greek cities and towns in the venture to cripple Perseus’ Greek support, making their way to Epirus. An Epirot leader wrote to Perseus for help, in which Perseus hurriedly met the Romans at Anticyra and was victorious once again. Perseus then decided to attack the Illyrians who were allowing safe passage for the Romans. The Illyrian king Gentius was wavering in who to support, though he held mixed Roman-Illyrian garrisons in his cities. Perseus marched on the city of Uscana, sending envoys to the garrison officers to peacefully surrender the city. They refused, and thus Perseus besieged the city. After a successful siege, the garrison commanders asked to be allowed to leave with their weapons. Perseus agreed, but then disarmed them, then moving the city’s population to Stubera and sold them as slaves. Perseus sent ambassadors to Gentius requesting an alliance, though Gentius replied he did not have enough money to support Perseus in the war. Perseus ravaged Illyrian cities and returned to Macedon.
The Romans decided to advance on Macedon, though they had to march through the Olympus range which gave Perseus enough time to evacuate from Pella to Pydna. Skirmishes about Macedon and Thessaly did not bring the Romans or Perseus any favors, only depleting their resources and soldiers. In late 169 BCE ambassadors from Bithynia and Rhodes appeared in the Senate asking for peace. Prusias had promised Perseus to act as a mediator for peace, and the Rhodians pleaded for the war’s end as it disrupted trade and they had begun a friendship with Perseus, of which the Romans forced the Rhodians to stop their Macedonian support and help Rome. The Rhodians had also sent envoys to Perseus to request for peace. The Senate, who considered this request arrogant, denied such peace. Once Perseus was defeated, then Rome would consider how to make due retribution.
In 168 BCE one of the consuls for the year was Lucius Aemilius Paullus, who was assigned to command the Roman campaign against Perseus. Meanwhile, Perseus sought aid from Antiochus IV and, surprisingly, Eumenes. Antiochus refused to help, and Perseus met with Eumenes in person to discuss an alliance, wanting peace in the Greek world. Despite being an enemy of Macedon, Eumenes considered Perseus’ proposal, yet demanded he immediately receive a sum of money for his support. The negotiations failed, and Eumenes continued to support the Romans. However, Perseus managed to gain an alliance with Gentius, in which Perseus pressured him to attack any Romans within his domain. Unfortunately, the Romans put Gentius under siege, where then Gentius surrendered and asked for a truce. Paullus’ campaign progressed favorably, as he gained a victory against Perseus’ army in the Pythian mountains which compelled Perseus to again withdraw to Pydna. Paullus met Perseus at Pydna in June, where the decisive battle of the war took place. The battle was hard fought and bloody, especially for the Macedonians, having already suffered great losses in any battle they had with the Romans. The Romans won the day, Perseus fled to Pella where his advisors and friends shunned him for the great defeat. The Battle of Pydna broke the Macedonian strength and made Perseus a fugitive in his own country.
Ambassadors of Perseus reached Paullus, giving him a letter that pleaded for mercy, which was “anything but kingly”. Paullus did not reply, and so Perseus sent him another letter begging Paullus to confer on their relations. Nothing came of it, and Perseus tried to flee but was caught by Roman officers. Perseus surrendered to Paullus, who was then taken captive and shipped to Rome to be paraded in Paullus’ triumph. The Senate decided to dissolve the Macedonian kingdom into four republics loyal to Rome, extinguishing the Macedonian monarchy forever. In 146 BCE the Romans would suspend the four republics and formally annex Macedon as a Roman province. With this victory the Romans tightened their control on Greece, granting voices to the pro-Roman factions in Greek cities. Once Paullus returned to Rome he celebrated a triumph, Perseus and his family marched in chains behind Paullus’ golden chariot. Perseus would remain in captivity for the rest of his life, dying in 165 or 162 BCE. His young son, Alexander, was educated in an Italian town where he became acquainted with metalworking and the Latin language, becoming a public notary.
“King Perseus and Aemilius Paullus” by Jean-François-Pierre Peyron
Perseus was the last of the Antigonid dynasty and the last king of Macedon in history. He inherited the ambitions of his father, perhaps to a more practical and capable scale, though Perseus could not bring victory and glory to the Macedonian kingdom as it had been in Alexander’s day. Like many of the Macedonian kings, he wished to be an Alexander-type figure, something his father emulated, yet the power and might of the Romans were too much for the Macedonians to recover such glories. Beginning his reign as a capable and ambitious ruler, Perseus descended into a defeated fugitive whose schemes and cruelties followed his name wherever he went. Forsaken by his people, retinue, and even his royal title, Perseus had no choice but to surrender to Aemilius Paullus and let the Romans reign as overlords of the Greek world. Perseus represented the last challenge to the Roman Republic if they were to completely conquer Greece. The line of Antigonus the One-Eye ended in utter capitulation, as well as the heritage of the Macedonian kings.
Recommended Reading:
History of Rome, Livy
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith
The History of Ancient Greece, J. Giles
A History of Macedonia, Robert Malcom Errington
Michael's Desk 