Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, commonly known as Scipio Africanus or Scipio Africanus the Elder, was a Roman general and statesman who is famous for his victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BCE) against the great Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca. The hero of the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), Scipio Africanus is remembered as an unorthodox Roman who fancied a pro-Greek lifestyle which upset the “old Roman” faction in the Roman Senate, pitting him against statesmen such as Marcus Porcius Cato (“Cato the Censor” or “Cato the Elder”). Disenchanted with Roman political life, Scipio withdrew from Rome towards the end of his life and carried a bitter resentment of his home state. As his the inscription on his tomb stated, “Ungrateful fatherland, you will not even have my bones.” Referring to the fact that Scipio demanded his body be buried away from Rome in his country seat of Liternum.
Perhaps the greatest general Rome had ever fostered, Scipio Africanus is forever considered the man who saved Rome from the wrath of Hannibal. I will attempt to examine the personality and military genius of Scipio Africanus.
Bronze Bust of Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus was a Roman who was ever bit confident in his destiny for greatness. Born circa 236 BCE to the Scipio branch of the illustrious and ancient Cornelii, we have no surviving record of Scipio Africanus’ early life. Though there are myths identified with earlier ones about Alexander the Great, claiming Scipio’s mother had lain with a snake of divine nature. Indeed, it seems his life and career of glory begins with the Second Punic War, joining in the struggle’s first year fighting alongside his father Publius Cornelius Scipio. The Second Punic War dominated Scipio’s life, as he was the savior general who rescued the Roman Republic from its destruction by Carthage. From his early exploits in Hispania all the way to his final victory at Zama do we see military genius in this young commander. He studied the tactics of Hannibal and turned them to Rome’s favor, his great victory at Zama the pinnacle of Scipio’s military genius from which he learned from Rome’s greatest enemy.
Scipio’s character was of the sensitive, intelligent, and overall charismatic. In his early military career he was considered Rome’s most dutiful commander, as there was one occasion while in Hispania (Spain) when some of his soldiers, the sons of distinguished magistrates, conspired to desert Rome for they thought the war was lost. Scipio confronted these men and at sword point forced them to swear that they would never abandon the Roman Republic. And in spite of his youth, Scipio commanded the greatest respect for he displayed a noble demeanor and enthusiastic language, and of course, his special military genius.
After the disaster of Cannae (216 BCE), which was Hannibal’s most celebrated victory, Scipio was one of the survivors who resolved to keep Rome safe and win glory. All the others of his class began to tremble before the might and supremacy of Hannibal, yet Scipio refused to believe Rome could ever be defeated and was determined to see absolute victory over the Carthaginians. Scipio’s youth and resolve made him stand out from the average high-class Roman, as he was given prestigious offices such as proconsul despite being 26 years-old. He was assigned the command of the campaign in Hispania, elected unanimously for his courage and resolution to bring victories to Rome and stop the Carthaginian menace.
Young and inexperienced, Scipio quickly demonstrated his tactical prowess by launching an offensive on the Carthaginian garrisons and assaulted New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Punic seat of Spain. Knowing that a siege could take months and that the returning enemy armies would appear in a matter of weeks, Scipio sought information on the fortress from local fishermen, designed a fierce operation and then ordered his soldiers to attack the weakest points of entry. Once the citadel was taken the Scipio’s soldiers plundered the city and gave praise to their gifted commander. While characteristically Roman in its strategic origin, the assault on New Carthage exhibited careful preparation and planning on Scipio’s part. His tactical sophistication would develop throughout the war until he mastered Hannibal’s own tactics. Scipio’s capture of New Carthage changed the balance of power of Carthage’s dominance and further victories would see the Roman Republic survive.
There was a story during Scipio’s Spanish campaign where a captured woman of astonishing beauty was brought to Scipio as a war-prize, yet she was betrothed to an Celtiberian chieftain named Allucius. Scipio returned the woman to Allucius and the money offered to ransom her by her parents. The event is commonly called “The Continence of Scipio” and has inspired many paintings of the story. This humanitarian act characterized Scipio’s conduct and attitude toward those humbled by the Romans, gaining Spanish allies for Rome in the process. Scipio was known for being a young womanizer, yet he still kept his honor and deferred to duty instead of indulging in vices and greedy opportunity. Scipio treated these subjects honorably and ordered his soldiers not to harm or molest the people in any way, especially the noblewomen. His treatment of the captured women of New Carthage evoked the past tales of Alexander’s generosity and grace when dealing with the captive royal Persian household.
“The Continence of Scipio” by Giovanni Francesco Romanelli
Scipio’s campaign in Hispania proved greatly successful, as he was able to drive back Hasdrubal Barca, Hannibal’s brother, utilizing the stratagems of Hannibal and effectively ended the Carthaginian presence in Hispania. Yet more glory awaited Scipio for he had decided to take the fight to Carthage and invaded Africa with his now veteran army and his new position as consul, of which he was unanimously elected. Yet Scipio had rivals in the Roman Senate, and they did not allow him to train an immediate Roman army mustered from the city, instead looking to the Sicilian training camps. The Sicilian camp hosted “disgraced” veterans from the war’s early stages, but nonetheless they proved apt and Scipio now marshaled an army eager to fight for him and finally bring the war to Carthage’s homeland.
Scipio landed in North Africa in 204 BCE near Utica and gained a victory against a combined Carthaginian-Numidian army. Fearing Scipio’s marching army, the Carthaginian council recalled Hannibal from Italy to protect its holdings in Africa. The two great generals met at Zama in late 202 BCE; in preparation for the oncoming battle, Scipio realized that Hannibal’s Numidian cavalry was the core of what made his foe’s army so superior, resolving to press the Kingdom of Numidia for support, for which they did by the grace of Massinissa, Numidia’s first king. Scipio also managed to devise a strategy to make Hannibal’s elephant squadrons ineffective, setting up his legions in formation that they could be flexible and outmanoeuvre the elephants. Before the battle Scipio and Hannibal met and discussed terms of peace. Hannibal offered Scipio a chance to return to Italy and let the Roman and Carthaginian politicians settle a peace treaty, but Scipio refused. His entire military career had led to this moment, the confrontation between Scipio and Hannibal, Rome and Carthage’s best.
Meeting of Hannibal and Scipio at Zama
The Battle of Zama proved to be bloody and exhausting, but Scipio prevailed using Hannibal’s own tactics against him as well as his own crafty innovation. Hannibal was defeated, and this victory at Zama secured absolute Roman conquest of the Western Mediterranean. Scipio returned to Rome and celebrated a magnificent and dramatic triumph, for he was the hero of the Roman world. The Romans hailed Scipio as Africanus (“Victor of Africa”), Scipio taking the name as an agnomen, forever a permanent title for his grand achievement. Still in his early 30s, Scipio had accomplished the greatest feats every Roman wished to attain. The Roman people thrust various honors on Scipio, namely consul for life and dictator. Scipio, in his honorable manner, refused.
Scipio was an unorthodox Roman in that he was quite the philhellene. He wrote and spoke Greek, fashioning his toga in a Greek style, as well as admiring the Greeks for their development and pursuit of knowledge, art, and religion. Scipio also went clean-shaven, according to the example of Alexander, a men’s fashion that would last until the reign of the emperor Hadrian but would then again be revived by Constantine the Great. To the traditional Roman factions in the Senate he was seen was a threat to ancient Roman customs. Scipio’s political opponents, led by Cato the Elder, eventually wore down Scipio’s political resolve with allegations of treason and bribery, and forced him into retirement. Scipio felt utter resentment for Rome after this, deciding to live out the rest of his life in Liternum where he then died circa 183 BCE.
Triumph of Scipio Africanus
Scipio is undoubtably one of Rome’s greatest generals, if not the greatest. Like Alexander, he was undefeated in battle and forever remembered as a military genius. In an account by Livy there is a story (most likely fabricated) where Scipio and Hannibal meet in Ephesus and discuss who are the greatest generals. Hannibal replied “Alexander… because with a small force he routed armies of countless numbers, and because he traversed the remotest lands […] Pyrrhus. He was the first to teach the out of laying out a camp. Besides that, no one has ever shown nicer judgement in choosing his ground, or in disposing his forces. He also had the art of winning men to his side…” When Scipio asked who ranked third, Hannibal answered himself. Scipio laughed at this and asked who would be greater if he had not defeated him. Hannibal said “I should certainly put myself before Alexander and before Pyrrhus – in fact before all other generals!” By this Hannibal meant that Scipio was set apart from the other great generals, in that his worth was beyond calculation.
Scipio Africanus deserves the accolades and praise awarded to him, as he was the man to defeat Hannibal. The hero of the Second Punic War. He is Scipio the Great.
Recommended Reading:
History of Rome, Livy
Scipio Africanus: Greater Than Napoleon, B. H. Liddell Hart
In the Name of Rome: The Men who Won the Roman Empire, Adrian Goldsworthy
Michael's Desk 