Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus (later known as Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus), commonly known as Titus, was the tenth Roman Emperor, reigning from 79 to 81 CE, and the second ruler of the Flavian dynasty. Titus is often regarded as one of the most exemplary emperors due to his good nature, charisma, and charitable acts, despite his short lived reign. An excellent general, Titus is remembered for participating in his father’s campaign against the the rebellious Jews of Judaea, in which he successfully reconquered the province and celebrated a grand triumph. Titus is also remembered for his charitable disposition, as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred during his reign as emperor, in which Titus orchestrated a mass relief effort to help those in need. The completion of various public works, including the famed Colosseum, is attributed to Titus. By far one of the most beloved Roman emperors, his death is considered a great tragedy as who knows what prosperity was held in store for Titus’ future reign.
Let us delve into the life and legacy of Titus.
Bust of Titus
Titus was born in December 39 CE, the eldest son of the then Roman general Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus (“Vespasian”) and his wife Flavia Domitilla Major. The gens Flavia, especially the Flavii Sabini, rose to prominence during the early imperial period of Rome, as the old Roman aristocracy had gradually died out. Titus’ family did not experience any fortune until his father Vespasian participated in Emperor Claudius’ invasion of Britain where he distinguished himself in several crucial battles. With Vespasian’s rise in both the military and political scene in Rome he was able to provide a court education for Titus. Titus became close friends with Claudius’ son Britannicus, he was even present at the dinner where Britannicus was poisoned by Nero, the adopted son and heir of Claudius. It is said Titus drank from the same poisoned glass as Britannicus had as a sign of sympathy, in which Titus became severely ill but still lived. In affection for Britannicus, when Titus was emperor he set up golden statues of Britannicus in the imperial palace.
According to the Roman biographer Suetonius, when Titus came of age “the beauty and talents that had distinguished him as a child grew even more remarkable […] he was both graceful and dignified, both muscular and handsome, except for a certain paunchiness. He had a phenomenal memory, and displayed a natural aptitude alike for the arts of war and peace […] could compose speeches and verses in Greek or Latin with equal ease […] He was something of a musician too: he sang pleasantly and had mastered the harp […] he claimed that he could imitate any handwriting in existence and might, in different circumstances, have been the most celebrated forger of all time.” However, Suetonius and other historians note that the adoration for Titus arose after his accession. As both a politician and his father’s colleague Titus was venomously loathed. It is unclear exactly why Titus was so despised, but when he became emperor he was “an object of universal love and adoration.”
From 57 to 59 CE Titus served as a military tribune in Germania (Germany), and by 60 CE he also served in Britannia (Britain), perhaps arriving with reinforcements to put down the revolt of Boudica. After the completion of his military services he returned to Rome where he participated as an advocate in the law courts, but only because it was a respectable occupation. In 66 CE Emperor Nero granted Vespasian a special command in the east with the task of settling the rebellions of Jewish people in Judaea. Titus was placed under his father’s command where he was in charge of Legio XV Apollinaris. The Jewish writer Josephus portrays Vespasian and Titus very favorably in their duties. By 68 CE the north and coast of Judaea were subjugated with pivotal victories at Taricheae and Gamala. During these battles Titus distinguished himself as a talented general.
Vespasian and Titus then focused their efforts on the fortified city of Jerusalem, the heart of the Jewish resistance. However, in 68 CE Nero committed suicide, putting the Roman Empire in a temporary crisis. The Roman Senate had declared Lucius Livius Ocella Sulpicius Galba (“Galba”) as emperor. Vespasian acknowledged Galba’s authority, sending Titus to Rome to greet the newly inducted emperor. Before he reached Italy, Titus learned that Galba had been murdered by Marcus Salvius Otho (“Otho”), who had then become emperor. Aulus Vitellius (“Vitellius”), governor of Germania, decided to march on Rome, and not wanting to be taken hostage by either side, Titus returned to his father in Judaea. In 69 CE, after the First Battle of Bedriacum, Otho committed suicide and Vitellius was now emperor. When the news reached the legions of Judaea, Egypt, and Syria they proclaimed Vespasian as emperor, Titus playing a vital role in his father’s acclamation. The Danubian legions soon followed, and after the Second Battle of Bedriacum Vitellius was taken prisoner and soon executed, Vespasian then officially declared emperor by the Senate. Vespasian had left Titus in command of the siege of Jerusalem, his most famous achievement.
The Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) was a tougher labor than the previous Judaean skirmishes, though Titus displayed his gifted mind in dealing with the city’s defenses. In command of four legions, Titus ordered the city to be enclosed on all sides, putting pressure on the food and water supplies. Though, Jewish raids continually harassed the Roman army, and on one occasion Titus was almost captured during a peace negotiation. In less than four weeks Titus and his legions breached the first and second walls of the city through the use of siege towers, catapults, and battering rams, leaving only the inner wall and the Temple protected. By this point the Jews were exhausted and famished, and to intimidate the rebels Titus ordered all Jewish deserters to be crucified. Titus then built a siege wall to confine the city and further the starvation of the resistance, and after several assaults the Romans eventually overwhelmed the Jews and breached the inner city.
The city was set ablaze and the inhabitants were slaughtered, though sources differ on Titus’ intentions when he breached the city. Some, like Josephus, claim Titus was moderate in his approach to the Jewish people, while others claim that Titus wanted to eradicate Judaism, killing the Jews and their sacred animals, effectively ending their god. Nevertheless, Titus ordered the remainder of the city to be destroyed, his goal being that no one would remember the name Jerusalem. One wall remained untouched – the “Wailing Wall” – a demonstration that none could withstand the might of the Roman army. During the onslaught of Jerusalem, a Roman soldier threw a torch into the Temple where it was then destroyed. Apparently, Titus had no intention of destroying the Temple, wanting to convert it into a temple dedicated to the Roman pantheon. As a final desecration, Titus made a sacrifice to the Roman standards in the Temple court. Titus was hailed as imperator by his soldiers, making this his greatest victory.
“The Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus” by Nicolas Poussin
The surviving Jews were taken as prisoners for Titus’ forthcoming triumph, including the rebel leaders Simon Bar-Giora and John of Jish. Titus then held a formal parade to thank and reward his soldiers, handing out crowns of gold to principal officers along with promotions, ending with three days of feasting. Ostensibly, Titus refused to accept a wreath, claiming that the Jewish god had used Titus as a manifestation for his wrath against his people. As it seemed Titus was about to relinquish his command, the soldiers begged Titus to stay or at least let them follow him. Such deep admiration and devotion did Titus inspire. Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus traveled to the city of Zeugma where King Vologases I of Parthia awarded him a crown. He then visited Antioch where he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews of that city. While traveling to Alexandria, Titus stopped at Memphis to attend the consecration of the Apis Bull, in which it required him to wear a diadem in the ceremony. This rose suspicions, as a diadem was traditionally identified with monarchy, and the soldier’s devotion to Titus made some assume he might try to usurp his father. Knowing of these rumors, Titus returned to Rome in 71 CE and greeted his father, who was not expecting him, with the simple words “Here I am, father, here I am!”
Upon his arrival at Rome, Titus was awarded a lavish triumph which he shared with his father and younger brother Titus Flavius Domitianus (“Domitian”). The conqueror of Judaea celebrated his triumph in the grandest of styles, enthusiastically hailed by the Roman populace as the spoils of the Second Temple were paraded along with the Jewish captives. Vespasian made a statement with this joint triumph, establishing Titus as his heir-apparent. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which was commissioned by Domitian, immortalized Titus’ achievements. Titus and Domitian were both bestowed with the honorific title of Caesar, and Titus would share practically every official honor that his father had. He held joint-tribunician power, the censorship, and seven consulships during the 70s CE. Titus was also appointed praetorian prefect and was in command of the domestic Roman army. Titus sustained the burdens of government in his father’s name, further strengthening his position as his father’s heir.
Titus’ exercised great power during his father’s regime, as he dealt with suspected traitors violently. In 79 CE, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was discovered; Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him stabbed to death before he left the room. Titus’ violence and severity made him notorious throughout Rome. Suetonius writes “He was believed to be profligate as well as cruel, of the riotous parties which he kept going with him more extravagant friends far into the night; and lustful too, because he kept a troop of toy boys and eunuchs, and nursed a notorious passion for Queen Berenice, to whom he allegedly promised marriage […] It was even prophesied quite openly that he would prove to be a second Nero. However, this pessimistic view stood him in good stead: as soon as everyone realized that here was no monster of vice but an exceptionally noble character, public opinion flew to the opposite extreme.”
Vespasian died in June 79 CE and Titus succeeded him without question. To the surprise of the Roman people, Titus displayed honest integrity and kind character. The people loved Titus and praised his virtues that overshadowed his vices. “No emperor could have been less of a robber than Titus, who showed the greatest respect for private property and would not even accept the gifts sanctioned by tradition. Nor had any of his predecessors ever displayed such generosity […] Titus was naturally kind-hearted, and though no emperor, following Tiberius’ example, had ever consented to ratify individual concessions granted by his predecessor unless these suited him personally, Titus did not wait to be asked but signed a general edict confirming all such concessions whatsoever […] Even when warned by his staff how impossible it would be to make good on such promises, Titus maintained that no one ought to go away disappointed from an audience with the emperor. One evening at dinner, realizing that he had done nobody any favor since the previous night, he spoke these memorable words : ‘My friends, I have wasted a day.'”
Coin of Imperator Titus
Titus sought to demonstrate the Flavians as the legitimate successors to the Julio-Claudian dynasty; he first deified his father upon his accession in accordance to the imperial cult (though, this would not be ratified until six months later) and would produce a series of coins depicting the previous emperors, notably Augustus and Claudius. Titus also funded construction projects of both his own invention and of his father’s will, the most remarkable being the Flavian Amphitheatre (known today as the “Colosseum”) as well as various bathhouses. In celebration of the completed amphitheatre, Titus hosted a grand hundred day festival with elaborate spectacles including gladiatorial fights, artificial sea battles, and wild beast hunts. One of his first acts as emperor was to halt the trials based on treasonous charges which had long afflicted the early days of the empire. Charges for slander and libel were done away with, as Titus said “It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.” Consequently, no senators were executed during his reign.
Another aspect of Titus’ life that had long entertained the Roman populace was his love life, eventful and somewhat scandalous. Titus was first married to Arrecina Tertulla, a woman of equestrian rank who had died shortly into their marriage. Titus then married Marcia Furnilla, whose distinguished family had helped Titus in his early political career. She bore him his only child, a daughter named Julia Flavia. Though, Titus later divorced Furnilla for unknown reasons, perhaps because her family was connected to the Pisonian conspiracy during Nero’s reign. Titus was known for his indulgence in young men and eunuchs, which spawned tales of his alleged debauchery.
However, his most famous (or infamous) romance was with the Jewish queen Berenice of Cilicia. During the Judaean rebellion, Titus met Berenice who immediately fell in love with him despite Titus being eleven years her junior. The sister of Herod Agrippa II, the Herodians had sided with the Romans during their reconquest of Judaea and when Nero’s death induced a succession crisis Berenice used her wealth and influence to support Vespasian’s claim. In 75 CE they reunited and lived with him in the imperial palace, acting in every aspect as his loyal wife. The Romans, however, perceived Berenice to be an intrusive foreigner. When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynics in a theatre Titus yielded and sent her away, which was painful for both of them. Also, it was rumored that Titus had an affair with Domitia Longina, the wife of his brother Domitian, though she had denied the allegation.
“The Triumph of Titus” by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (notice the longing gazes of Titus and Domitia)
Titus had a strained relationship with his brother Domitian, as Suetonius writes “Titus’ brother Domitian caused him endless trouble: he took part in conspiracies, stirred up disaffection in the armed forces almost openly, and toyed with the notion of escaping from Rome and putting himself at their head. Yet Titus had not the heart to execute Domitian, dismiss him from court, or even treat him less honorably than before. Instead, he continued to repeat, as on the first day of his reign, ‘Remember that you are my partner and chosen successor,’ and often took Domitian aside, begging him tearfully to return the affection he offered.” Nevertheless, Domitian contributed greatly to Titus’ memory after he died, erecting monuments to his brother.
Titus’ reign is noted for the series of catastrophes that occurred, notably the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Titus reacted by appointing two ex-consuls to coordinate the relief effort and spent huge sums of money from the imperial treasury to help the victims. In 80 CE an immense fire broke out in Rome, burning considerable amounts for three days and three nights. Not as disastrous as the Great Fire of 64 CE, the city still lost a number of public buildings including Agrippa’s Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, parts of the Theatre of Pompey among others. Like before, Titus personally compensated for the damages. Also, a plague spread during the fire, yet the nature of the disease is unknown, only described to be horrendous. Titus’ only comment on the fire at Rome was “This has ruined me!”
As a result of Titus’ actions during these blights he gained a reputation for generosity and cordiality. In 81 CE at the closing of the ceremonial games Titus wept openly and officially dedicated the amphitheatre and bathes, which were to be his final recorded acts as emperor. Titus set off for the Sabine territories, though suddenly he fell ill with an intense fever. On his way back to Rome in his litter he is said “to have drawn back the curtains, gazed up at the sky, and complained bitterly that life was being undeservedly taken from him – since he had done nothing at all which he had cause to regret, save for one thing only.” Allegedly, his last words before dying were “I have made but one mistake.” It has been speculated that Titus may have been referring to his rumored love affair with Domitia.
Statue of Titus
Titus was succeeded by Domitian, who forthwith deified Titus. Upon hearing of his death, the Roman people went into mourning “as though they had suffered a personal loss.” Senators rushed to the Senate House and began “speaking of him with greater thankfulness and praise than they had ever used while he was alive and still among them.” The Flavian dynasty would not last beyond Domitian, who was assassinated in 96 CE.
Titus stands as one of the most exemplary emperors of any period in Roman history. True, his legacy is enhanced by his early death, nonetheless Titus displayed a good disposition that is remarked upon by his winning personality and charitable acts. The Roman historian Cassius Dio remarks upon Titus’ death and legacy, writing:
“His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.”
One must always wonder what would become of the Roman Empire if Titus had lived longer. Would it prosper beyond imagination? Did he inherit good fortune? That is left up to the individual.
Recommended Reading:
Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius
The War of the Jews, Josephus
Roman History, Cassius Dio
In the Name of Rome: The Men who Won the Roman Empire, Adrian Goldsworthy
Michael's Desk 