Alexander’s Heir

Seleucus I Nicator (“the Victor”) was a Macedonian infantry general of Alexander the Great who would become the greatest of his successors. No one would expect Seleucus to become to so powerful and so great out of all the competing diadochi (“successors”), though Seleucus’ ambitions were much like Alexander’s own. His empire and legacy would prove to do right by Alexander and his vision of a multicultural realm, something his other warring generals did not fully understand or even consider. Seleucus is an interesting character, in that he rose from the ranks of Alexander’s army to become one of the most important challengers of his other prestigious generals who had grabbed territory in the effort to elevate themselves over the bones of Alexander’s empire. Seleucus knew of the military genius his king had taught him throughout the Asian campaigns, and it is through Seleucus’ knowledge and actions we understand how this little-known Macedonian general became the master of the Asia and the reviver of the Persian Empire. Out of all of Alexander’s successors, Seleucus proved to make the impossible a reality, truly earning his epithet “the Victor”.

Now, I will summarize and analyze Seleucus’ life and legacy.

Bust of Seleucus I Nicator

Seleucus was born circa 358 BCE to the Macedonian nobleman Antiochus and his Greek wife Laodice. Though, there was a Seleucid legend that Seleucus’ true father was the god Apollo as mandated by Seleucus’ anchor shaped birthmark, although this is probably later Seleucid propaganda invented to praise and esteem Seleucus, probably fabricated by Seleucus himself. Nonetheless, Apollo was regarded as the patron god of the Seleucids forever after. His father Antiochus was reported to be amongst Philip II’s most dutiful generals, gaining distinction in Philip’s wars against his neighbors and the Greek mainland. Seleucus was raised in the traditional elite Macedonian fashion, becoming a royal page to King Philip as was customary to all noble-born males who would later become officers in the king’s army. It is suspected he met Alexander while serving his father Philip, creating a bond between the two boys who would subsequently become soldiers in their own manner. In 334 BCE Seleucus accompanied Alexander on his Asian campaign to conquer the Achaemenid Empire, serving as an infantry soldier who would eventually rise to the rank of commander of the elite infantry corps known as the Hypaspistai (“Shield-Bearers”, later known as the “Silver Shields”) by 327 BCE. Seleucus later gained distinction fighting in India against King Porus and his elephant squadrons.

During Alexander’s campaigns Seleucus met his future wife, Apama, a Sogdian princess. Possibly received as a reward for his diligent duty, Seleucus would take Apama as his mistress throughout the rest of Alexander’s wars, even having a son with her named Antiochus in 324 BCE. During the mass wedding ceremonies at Susa Seleucus would formally marry Apama and was noted to be the only Macedonian officer not to divorce or reject his Asian wife after Alexander’s death. Was he in love with her? Perhaps. Or, was Seleucus devoted to Alexander’s image of a multicultural empire? Or was Seleucus smart enough to know that maintaining a marriage with his Sogdian wife was the best way to secure a friendly and grounded relationship with the new Asian subjects? Perhaps a combination of all these theories.

In the aftermath of Alexander’s death the empire was divided up amongst his generals, the supreme regent being Perdiccas. Seleucus was chosen by Perdiccas to command the Hetairoi (“Companions”)  and was also named first chiliarch, making him the the most senior officer of the entire army after Perdiccas. In 321 BCE Ptolemy, a former general and bodyguard of Alexander, hijacked Alexander’s corpse and ignited war amongst the generals. As the other generals rebelled against Perdiccas, Seleucus still showed his support of the regent, likely thankful for the amount of command and prestige that was awarded to him. However, when Perdiccas marched on Egypt to fight Ptolemy that is when things went sour. Perdiccas was unsuccessful in his assault on Memphis, and later in the night he was assassinated by his officers – Antigenes, Peithon, and possibly Seleucus. It is unconfirmed whether Seleucus definitely took part in the murder of Perdiccas, but it suspected he at least knew of the plot.

With the death of Perdiccas the empire was once again divided. Antipater, Alexander’s governor of Macedon and Greece, was chosen as the supreme regent and protector over the feeble-minded Philip III and the infant Alexander IV. Antipater awarded the governorship of Babylonia to Seleucus, a source of wealth yet with insignificant military power. Seleucus arrived at the city of Babylon to find himself at odds with the Babylonian priesthood, a faction that essentially controlled the populace. Seleucus was eventually compelled to give the priests monetary gifts and vocal support to win their favor and see Babylon fold under his rule. In 319 BCE Antipater died and left the regency to his lieutenant, Polyperchon, instead of his son Cassander who proved to be rash and hotheaded. Cassander, soured by this decision, waged war against Polyperchon. Elsewhere, Antipater’s death gave incentive to Peithon, governor of Media, to expand his domain. Both of these events put Seleucus in a vulnerable position, as Polyperchon’s lieutenant Eumenes and his army were just north of Babylon being trailed by Antigonus Monophthalmus (“the One-Eye”), a supporter of Cassander’s claim. Meanwhile, Peithon arrived at Babylon in late 317 BCE, he having more soldiers than Seleucus could muster.

Eumenes inched closer and closer to Babylon by the spring of 316 BCE with the hopes of crossing the Tigris River. Seleucus sent two triremes along with other ships to stop the crossing of Eumenes. He even opened the flood barriers of the river to try to halt Eumenes, but to no avail. It seems Seleucus had no plans to actually stop Eumenes. However, Eumenes kept marching on toward Susa, passing Babylon and thus allowing Seleucus to join up with Antigonus and Peithon in their hunt for Eumenes. Antigonus left a small contingent of soldiers with Seleucus to prevent Eumenes from reaching the Mediterranean, a gesture not needed as Antigonus would end up defeating Eumenes at the Battle of Gabiene (316 BCE). With Eumenes’ execution the war finally subsided. Though, soon enough Antigonus’ treatment of Seleucus would provoke conflict.

In the summer of 315 BCE Antigonus arrived in Bablyon and to a  warm welcome from Seleucus, the former now reigning over most of the empire’s Asian territories. However, conflict would arise when Seleucus punished one of Antigonus’ officers without imploring Antigonus. Antigonus became angry at Seleucus’ disregard for his authority, demanding the province’s treasury be gifted to him as a settlement. Seleucus refused, and with the Babylonian priesthood conspiring against him, Seleucus was compelled to flee to Egypt where Ptolemy, the ever-independent governor, welcomed him. After arriving in Egypt, Seleucus sent associates to inform Lysimachus, governor of Thrace, and Cassander, regent of Macedon, of Antigonus’ actions. With Antigonus now the most powerful of the diadochi, Seleucus relied on the integrity of the other generals to unite against him. The allied diadochi sent a request to Antigonus, demanding that Seleucus be allowed to peacefully return to Babylon. Antigonus refused, instead developing an invasion plan to attack Ptolemy. War once again resumed, and Seleucus was appointed as an admiral under Ptolemy’s leadership.

Ptolemy first sent Seleucus to attack Rhodes, who allied with Antigonus. The fleet was too small to properly conquer the city, but this show of strength was enough to make Asander, governor of Caria, to join up with Ptolemy. In an effort to demonstrate his power, Seleucus invaded the city of Erythrae and continued to plunder the coastline of Antigonus’ domain. Seleucus later joined Ptolemy’s half-brother, Menelaus, in the besiegement of the city-kingdom of Kition. The while Antigonus dispatched his fleet to the Aegean Sea and kept his army in Asia Minor. However, this presented Ptolemy with the opportunity to invade Syria, in which he did. Seleucus and Ptolemy met with Antigonus’ son, Demetrius Poliorcetes (“the Besieger”), at the Battle of Gaza (312 BCE) in which they defeated him. In the battle Peithon (son of Agenor), Antigonus’ governor of Babylonia, was killed, thus allowing Seleucus to return to Babylon. Ptolemy subscribed 800 infantry and 200 cavalry to his cause, along with friends that had followed Seleucus after his expulsion from Babylon. On the road to Babylon, Seleucus managed to recruit more soldiers from Greek colonies, acquiring about 3,000 soldiers. Seleucus was now prepared and confident in his return to his rightful seat of governance.

 Seleucus arrived at Babylon to discover the city under the governance of the general Diphilus, a supporter of Peithon and Antigonus. Diphilus barricaded himself inside the city’s citadel and waited for Seleucus’ assault, unsure of his fate. These defenses were no trouble for Seleucus as he managed to conquer Babylon with great speed and the citadel just as quick. Seleucus then freed his friends and associates who had remained in Babylon. Once a fleeting fugitive now a conquering ruler, Seleucus’ triumphant return to Babylon is regarded as the official start date of the Seleucid Empire and the first year of the Seleucid era.

Bust of Seleucus

With the word of Seleucus’ return to Babylon spreading, supporters of Antigonus conspired to gain it back. Two of Antigonus’ governors, Nicanor and Evagoras, collaborated with each other in the effort to win back Babylon. Seleucus, knowing his small army could not withstand direct open battle, ordered his soldiers to hide in the marshes around the Tigris. As Nicanor and Evagoras approached Babylon with their armies, Seleucus sprung a surprise attack and in the battle Evagoras was killed. Evagoras’ death hit the troops hard, surrendering en masse to Seleucus while Nicanor escaped with a handful of men. Employing the surrendering soldiers, Seleucus now had a sizeable army, though not enough to confront Antigonus. Although, Seleucus knew that at least two eastern provinces were without governors, and he had enough soldiers under his command hailing from these regions to make the land easier to subdue. Seleucus then began conjuring different stories about himself amongst his soldiers that eventually reached the eastern provinces, stories that carried great propagandic value in that compared him favorably to Alexander, or in that it made Seleucus appear to be Alexander’s heir. As Seleucus marched east with Alexander he could use his deceased king in his propaganda, whereas Antigonus could not having been stationed in Phrygia during Alexander’s eastern campaigns. Seleucus became a popular and famous ruler in Babylon, so much so that the Babylonians did not wish for another governor that lacked Seleucus’ character.

Seleucus became more agressive in his political ambitions, immediately moving eastward and conquering Media and Susiana, as well as adjoining eastern regions such as Persis, Aria, and Parthia. Seleucus did not manage to reach Bactria and Sogdiana for some unknown reason. Though, with Nicanor’s defeat there was no one to oppose Seleucus’ eastward expansion. Eventually, Antigonus did conduct a counterattack against Seleucus, sending his son Demetrius with 15,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry to recapture Babylon, though Antigonus gave his son a time limit in which he must return to Syria. It seems Antigonus did not know that Seleucus had conquered most of the eastern territories. Seleucus was still campaigning when Demetrius arrived at Babylon, having left the general and geographer Patrocles to govern and defend the city. The citizens of Babylon were transferred out of the city and settled in neighboring villages and outposts, some as far as Susa. Babylon had two strong fortresses garrisoned with soldiers left behind by Seleucus, the city itself being used as a fortified barbican. Also, the surroundings of Babylon were excellent for defense, a setting with canals, rivers, and swamps. Demetrius managed to seize one of the towers, but the second tower proved too difficult and so Demetrius left his lieutenant Archelaus in charge of the siege while he returned west. Ancient sources do not mention what happened to Archelaus and his troops, though perhaps Seleucus had to reconquer Babylon.

In 311 BCE Antigonus made peace with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Though, this would not halt his ambitions as well as utilizing his numerical superiority to take advantage of Seleucus, having a personal grudge against him. Antigonus appeared at Babylon to find Seleucus’ army much bigger than previously seen, having perhaps recruited men from Archelaus’ regiments. Seleucus also may have received help from the Cossians, a Near Eastern people whose lands had been devastated by Antigonus. Many of Seleucus’ soldiers hated Antigonus, along with the Babylonian populace being hostile. Antigonus occupied Babylon, yet the entire city was against him, ever loyal to Seleucus. There is little information about the war between Seleucus and Antigonus, though there are a few sources mentioning how Antignonus occupied Babylon, though to no success as Ptolemy decided to aid Seleucus and attacked Cilicia due to malicious intrigue that took place on Cyprus. One source presents us how Seleucus managed to defeat Antigonus in at least one decisive battle. It reports that Seleucus and Antigonus fought for a whole day before retiring for nightfall, the two armies agreeing to a temporary truce and to resume fighting in the morning. However, Seleucus ordered his soldiers to sleep and eat breakfast in battle formation during the night. Seleucus then attacked Antigonus and his soldiers while they were eating breakfast, quickly achieving victory. The historical accuracy of this event is questionable.

Antigonus accepted defeat and retreated west, relinquishing the provinces of Media and Elam to Seleucus. Though, war soon resumed while Ptolemy was expanding his power in the Aegean and Seleucus went on a grand tour of the east to consolidate his authority. From 311 to 302 BCE Seleucus achieved bringing the whole eastern part of Alexander’s empire as far as the Jaxartes and Indus under his rule. During his campaigns and ventures Seleucus would establish a number of cities, numerous Seleucias, Apameas, Laodiceas, and Antiochs. It was said that Seleucus surpassed Alexander in the building of cities, having had more cities in Asia Minor than the whole of Alexander’s empire. The most famous of his cities was Antioch-on-the-Orontes (“the cradle of Christianity”).The city was possibly named after Seleucus’ father or son, both named Antiochus, and was reputed to be built on a sacred site where Alexander camped for a night. Similarly, Seleucus founded Antioch through ritual means. Antioch would become the chief capital and foremost trade center of the Seleucid Empire, eventually rivaling Alexandria of Egypt in terms of importance. Other famed Seleucid cities were Seleucia-on-the-Tigris, initially the new capital of Seleucus’ realm before Antioch was built, and Seleucia Pieria (“Seleucia by the Sea”) which was the captial seaport of the Seleucid Empire. With the establishment of these new cities, Seleucus’ original capital of Babylon became insignificant as the most of the Babylonian population was moved to either Seleucia-on-the-Tigris or Antioch. It was said of Seleucus that “few princes had ever lived with so great a passion for the building of cities.”

The struggle of the diadochi reached its peak when, after the extinction of the royal Argead dynasty, in 306/305 BCE Antigonus and Demetrius declared themselves independent kings. Seleucus and the other diadochi (Lysimachus, Cassander, and Ptolemy) also proclaimed themselves kings. Seleucus then continued to attend to matters in the east, trying to occupy territory as far as the Indus River. As such, Seleucus came into conflict with the Indian Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, called Sandrokottos by the Greeks. Seleucus’ campaign to take the Indus territory from Chandragupta ended in failure; ultimately, an agreement was reached and sealed with a treaty. Seleucus would cede a considerable amount of eastern territory to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 war-elephants. Seleucus would also marry  his daughter to Chandragupta.

Illustrated portrait of King Seleucus

Seleucus returned from the east to participate in the final war against Antigonus, utilizing his new war-elephants to great effect. Seleucus and his son Antiochus engaged with Lysimachus in the Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE) where Antigonus was killed. Demetrius, who fought alongside his father, fled to Ephesus with the remaining Antigonid army and Antigonus’ Asian holdings were divided amongst Seleucus and Lysimachus. With this victory Syria was placed under Seleucus’ rule, yet Ptolemy still claimed Syria as his own. Soon after, Seleucus sparked an alliance with an overwhelmed Demetrius, marrying Demetrius’ daughter Stratonice as his first love Apama had died years prior. Seleucus became frustrated as he could not expand his domain westward, mostly because he lacked the loyal Macedonian and Greek soldiers needed for it. Seleucus had relied on his war-elephants and Persian cavalry as opposed to Lysimachus’ superior numerical army. In order to recruit more troops, Seleucus founded more cities and colonies in Asia.

In 294 BCE Seleucus instigated the marriage between his son Antiochus and his new wife Stratonice, doing so after discovering his son was in danger of dying of “lovesickness” for Startonice. Also, it is believed Seleucus arranged the marriage partially because Demetrius had become sole king of Macedon, so this way he could secure Stratonice’s safety in case he commenced conflict with her father. Soon enough, the alliance between Seleucus and Demetrius ended when Seleucus moved to conquer Cilicia. In 292 BCE Seleucus appointed Antiochus as his co-ruler and viceroy of the eastern provinces, as the large empire seemed to require a double government.

“Antiochus and Stratonice of Syria” by Johann Eleazar Schenau

In 286 BCE Demetrius invaded and easily occupied Cilicia, suggesting he was aiming to take Seleucus’ most important colonies in Syria. However, Demetrius’ soldiers were tired and were without proper payment. On the other hand, Seleucus had more than enough resources to supply his army as well as the adoration of his soldiers. Seleucus then blocked the roads leading south from Cilicia and urged the soldiers of Demetrius to join him. Though, at the same time he tried to avoid direct contact with Demetrius. Finally, after years of intimidation and challenges Seleucus met with Demetrius and his army, addressing Demetrius personally. He presented himself in front of the soldiers and removed his helmet, revealing his identity. With this act the soldiers abandoned Demetrius en masse. Totally forsaken, Demetrius surrendered to Seleucus.

Surprisingly, Seleucus acted generously toward Demetrius, in a show of goodness and faith. However, Demetrius became popular amongst Seleucus’ court, and from then on Demetrius was treated as a prisoner, being locked away in Apamea-on-the-Orontes. Demetrius died three years later in captivity, drinking himself to death. The only other remaining powers were Lysimachus and Ptolemy. Lysimachus, having previously supported Seleucus against Demetrius, began to fallout with Seleucus. In 285 BCE Lysimachus became the sole ruler of Macedon along with his domain over Thrace and western territories of Asia Minor. Seleucus became hostile to Lysimachus as he was suddenly less imposing, having most of Greece under his command. It seems Seleucus’ relationship with Ptolemy also deteriorated, mainly because Seleucus had become the most powerful diadochi and this caused Ptolemy to be cautious and cynical. It is suspected at this point Selelucus wished to reunite Alexander’s empire under his rule.

In 283 BCE Ptolemy died, leaving only Seleucus and Lysimachus as the enduring contemporaries of Alexander. Fate seemed to favor Seleucus at this moment as Lysimachus had been married to Arisnoe (later Arsinoe II), daughter of Ptolemy, and had recently taken in Ptolemy Ceraunus (“Thunderbolt”), the rejected eldest son of Ptolemy. Both Arisnoe and Ptolemy began to corrupt Lysimachus’ mind with suspicions about his son Agathocles. Agathocles was well liked by the people for his dashing warrior character, in which he also won the loyalty of the army. Lysimachus had his son executed on suspicions of treason, a very unpopular act which forever blemished Lysimachus’ reputation. City-states owing allegiance to Lysimachus began to wane in their support. Agathocles’ wife and children fled to the court of Seleucus, accompanied by Ptolemy Ceraunus, pleading to Seleucus to intervene. Members of the army soon defected and made their way to Syria, and even Lysimachus’ own son Alexander became wary. Hundreds of voices called upon Seleucus to vanquish Lysimachus.

As E.R. Bevan writes: “Seleucus felt indeed his moment had come. The world, weary of the long conflict, saw once more, forty years after the great conqueror’s death, his two remaining companions, now old men, address themselves to the crowning fight for his inheritance.” Seleucus, the most powerful of Alexander’s generals, gathered an army and launched a campaign against Lysimachus. Meanwhile, Lysimachus looked to Egypt for old alliances, though the new young pharaoh Ptolemy II, later known as Philadelphus (“Sibling-Loving”), kept quiet when Lysimachus requested assistance. In 281 BCE Seleucus and Lysimachus met on the plains of Corus; we known nothing about the battle except the results. Seleucus was victorious, Lysimachus had died during the fighting.

Seleucus had seen his last rival die. Now the only living contemporary of Alexander, Seleucus had restored rule over the old Achaemenid Empire, most of it at least. Seleucus took the task of administrating the provinces of Asia Minor, the region being ethnically diverse in that it consisted of a Greek populace and cities, a Persian aristocracy, and indigenous peoples. Apparently, Seleucus managed some respectable control over Asia, with the number of new cities being founded under his character. Though, he was unable to subdue Cappadocia, and Pergamon under Philetaerus, an old officer of Lysimachus, remained semi-indepedent in that he adhered to Seleucus. Still, Seleucus proved to be a popular ruler, as in the years since Ipsus, all cities in Asia sent embassies to his court. Seleucus even complained about the amount of letters he was receiving and forced to read. He would also be served an extra cup of wine during dinners according to local customs. In Lemnos he was celebrated as a liberator and a temple was erected in honor of him. By this period he was called Seleucus Soter (“the Savior”).

 

Coin of Philetaerus depicting Seleucus I Nicator

With the east under his rule and he at the apex of his power, Seleucus looked to his homeland. With the exceptions of Greater Egypt, Thrace, Macedon and all of Greece, Seleucus had become the master of Alexander’s inheritance. Now with the pivotal opportunity, Seleucus desired to establish an immortal legacy – reuniting Alexander’s empire. He intended to invade Thrace first, then moving on to Macedon and Greece, then finish with Egypt. It appears Greece had already welcomed him as their ruler, as he was named an honorary citizen of Athens. Seleucus resolved to leave his Asiatic domain to his son Antiochus while he reigned for the remainder of his days in Macedon. He had, however, only crossed the Thracian Chersonese when he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. He was 77 years-old.

Seleucus was buried at Seleucia Pieria by his son and successor Antiochus I Soter. Antiochus eventually established a cult dedicated to his dead father, decreeing Seleucus should be worshipped as “Zeus Nicator”. Seleucus was also worshipped as the son of a god, as an inscription found at Illion advising priests to sacrifice to Apollo, the Seleucid ancestor. Seleucus was posthumously given the epithet “Nicator” – the Victor. Several anecdotes about Seleucus’ life became popular in antiquity.

Besides Antigonus, Seleucus had the closest chance to actually achieve what the other diadochi dreamed about, making him come across as the true victor of these successor wars in the aspects of authority and longevity. Seleucus, in his hard work and conclusive success, perhaps proved to be the most legitimate “successor” of Alexander, in that how he maintained not only Alexander’s eastern territories, but how the development of Hellenization processed throughout the Seleucid Empire, achieving Alexander’s goal of multicultural unity. Seleucus founded a Greco-Persian dynasty, the most remarkable of the Successor Kingdoms in its ethos and power. His empire would adhere to Alexander’s dream. He truly was the victor.

Recommended Reading:

The House of Seleucus, E.R. Bevan

Seleukos Nikator: Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom, John D. Grainger

Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great’s Empire, Robin Waterfield